What is Serotonin?

Serotonin – also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine, or “5-HT” for short – belongs to the family of neurotransmitters called catecholamines, and acts as a very important biochemical messenger throughout the brain and the digestive system.

Serotonin is synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan by the enzyme tryptophan hydroxylase.

In humans, it is found primarily in the central nervous system (CNS), gastrointestinal tract, and blood platelets.

It is responsible for regulating many important physiological functions throughout the body and brain, including neurotransmission, gastrointestinal motility, hemostasis, and cardiovascular integrity (R).

Psychological and Physiological Roles of Serotonin

1) Serotonin and Mood

Serotonin is best-known for its role in the brain, where it acts as one of the major neurotransmitters that allows neurons to communicate with each other.

While serotonin’s actions in the brain are diverse and highly complex, it is most well-known for its purported involvement in mood and emotion.

For example, serotonin is famous for its involvement in depression, and the majority of the most common and widely-used antidepressants primarily target the brain’s serotonin system. Nonetheless, it also plays a role in other mood-related processes, such as aggression, impulsivity, and social dominance (R).

Serotonin’s role in psychological processes is highly studied by scientists, and many studies suggest that the levels and overall activity of this key neurotransmitter can have significant effects on mood and emotion.

Researchers have a variety of ways of influencing serotonin activity. For example, acute tryptophan depletion (ATD) is one experimental method for artificially reducing serotonin levels throughout the body (because tryptophan is a necessary “ingredient”, or “metabolic precursor” for making serotonin – and the body and brain can’t produce any without it). Depleting serotonin levels via ATD has been associated with “low” moods, increased irritability, and increased aggression (R).

2) Heart & Cardiovascular Function

Serotonin is considered a significant circulating hormonal factor that has been implicated in normal cardiovascular function, either by acting directly on heart cells, or by stimulating chemosensitive nerves from the heart (R).

Patients with carcinoid tumors (a rare type of slow-growing cancer) have elevated levels of serotonin activity in

The post All About Serotonin: What It Does & Potential Ways To Increase It appeared first on SelfHacked.

What Is Serotonin Syndrome?

Serotonin is an important chemical found in the brain and other parts of the body. Serotonin helps to transmit messages that regulate bodily functions such as behavior, mood, body temperature, digestion, blood flow, and breathing. Many antidepressants work by altering the levels of serotonin in the brain [R].

Serotonin syndrome occurs when someone has too much serotonin in their system – either from an overdose of one drug or as a result of combining multiple drugs that increase serotonin levels. This can be extremely dangerous and result in many serious complications ranging from mild (confusion, diarrhea, shivering) to severe (delirium, seizures, comas) [R].

Although some people may be more susceptible to serotonin syndrome and the severity may vary, anyone with elevated levels of serotonin will experience symptoms. Even one dose of a serotonin-altering drug can result in serotonin syndrome [R].

Symptoms

Warning: serotonin syndrome is a potentially fatal condition and requires urgent medical treatment. If you’ve used psychoactive drugs/herbs/supplements and noticed any of the symptoms described below, seek medical help ASAP.

Since serotonin activates many receptors throughout the body, an excess of it in the bloodstream can have a wide range of effects. These vary from mild to life-threatening [R].

Too much serotonin in the brain can cause [R]:

• Confusion
• Agitation
• Increased sensitivity to stimuli (hypervigilance)
• Restlessness
• Anxiety
• Fever

The effects on the heart and blood vessels include [R]:

• Rapid heart rate
• Blood pressure spikes

By acting on the gut, excessive serotonin can lead to [R]:

• Diarrhea
• Nausea
• Vomiting

It can also cause [R]:

• Excessive sweating
• Muscle spasms or an increased muscle tone
• Pupil dilation
• Shivering
• Tremor (rhythmic shaking)

Life-threatening symptoms include [R] :

• Delirium
• Metabolic acidosis
• Rhabdomyolysis (the breakdown of muscle tissue that releases a toxic protein)
• Very high body temperature (over 41 °C)
• Coma

The post Serotonin Syndrome: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment appeared first on SelfHacked.

What is Serotonin?

Definition

Serotonin is an important signaling molecule throughout the brain and body. It is commonly known as the “happiness neurotransmitter” or the “happiness hormone” due to its prominent role in regulating mood.

Serotonin plays an important role in the brain, where its main job is to transmit messages between nerve cells. According to some scientific theories, serotonin is involved in all aspects of human behavior [R, R].

Increasing Serotonin Naturally

When to see a doctor

If your goal is to increase serotonin to improve your mood-related issues—including those of depression or anxiety—it’s important to talk to your doctor, especially your mood is significantly impacting your daily life.

Major mood changes, such as excessive sadness, persistent low mood, euphoria, or anxiety, are all reasons to see a doctor.

Your doctor should diagnose and treat the condition causing your symptoms.

Remember that the existing evidence does not suggest that low brain serotonin directly causes mood disorders. Complex disorders like depression always involve multiple possible factors—including brain chemistry, environment, health status, and genetics—that can each vary significantly from one person to another.

Additionally, changes in brain chemistry are not something that people can change on their own with the approaches listed below. Instead, the factors listed here are meant to reduce daily stress and support overall mental health and well-being.

In other words, the information in this post should never be used to replace conventional medical treatment—it deals with “complementary strategies” only.

Therefore, you may try the additional strategies listed below if you and your doctor determine that they could be appropriate. Read through the approaches listed here and discuss them with your doctor before trying them out.

Lifestyle Changes

1) Stress Reduction

Our bodies release cortisol when stressed. Cortisol likely decreases serotonin levels in the body by increasing serotonin reuptake. Some scientists hypothesize that too much cortisol can impair mental health. That is why reducing mental stress can help balance cortisol levels and increase serotonin [R].

Many of the lifestyle changes below can be used to decrease stress.

2) Mood Improvement

Serotonin impacts our mood, but mood also affects serotonin production. Studies

The post How to Increase Serotonin: 14 Foods & Lifestyle Factors appeared first on SelfHacked.

What Is Serotonin Deficiency?

Serotonin is synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan by a short metabolic pathway consisting of two enzymes.

In the first step, the “raw material” (metabolic precursor) tryptophan is converted to 5-hydroxytryptophan (also known as 5-HTP) by the enzyme tryptophan hydroxylase.

In the second step, 5-HTP is converted to serotonin (5-HT) by the enzyme aromatic amino acid decarboxylase [R].

Serotonin is produced in the platelets of the blood and cells of the gut, and is then distributed throughout the body to exert its effects.

Serotonin produced outside of the brain cannot directly cross the blood-brain barrier, although tryptophan and 5-HTP can. Therefore, the latter two compounds are what produce serotonin within the brain itself.

Any disruption of these mechanisms or damage to serotonin receptors can lead to a decrease in overall serotonin effects in the body.

When serotonin levels are lower than normal, this is known as “serotonin deficiency”, and can result in a variety of symptoms including impaired body functions and even psychological disorders [R].

You can learn more about serotonin and its effects in this post, whereas in this post we’ll be focusing more on the potential causes and consequences of serotonin deficiency.

Potential Causes

There are a very large number of factors involved in the production and action of serotonin throughout the body and brain, which means that there are a very large number of different factors that can potentially play a role in how much serotonin a person has, or how much of it is available to the different biological systems that rely on it.

So, keeping in mind that this is not a fully exhaustive list, here are a few of the factors that could potentially cause or contribute to low serotonin levels (or reduced serotonin activity):

• Inherited defects that decrease BH4 (tetrahydrobiopterin), a metabolic cofactor required for the production of serotonin [R]
• Mutations in the TPH1 and TPH2 genes, which metabolize tryptophan and

The post 17 Potential Effects of Serotonin Deficiency appeared first on SelfHacked.

What is Serotonin?

Definition & Overview

Serotonin is an important signaling molecule throughout the brain and body. It is commonly known as the “happiness neurotransmitter” or the “happiness hormone” due to its prominent role in regulating mood.

Serotonin plays an important rol,e in the brain, where its main job is to transmit messages between nerve cells. According to some scientific theories, serotonin is involved in all aspects of human behavior [R, R].

However, brain serotonin makes up less than 2% of the total serotonin found in our bodies. Most serotonin (over 90%) is actually made, stored, and released by the gut. In addition, about 5-8% of serotonin is stored in platelets circulating in the blood [R, R, R].

As such, the roles of serotonin in the body are many and diverse. Research suggests that serotonin influences [R, R, R, R, R]:

• Mood and emotions
• Movement (motor function)
• The sleep-wake cycle
• Body temperature (thermogenesis)
• Appetite
• Bowel movements
• Various gut functions
• Blood clotting (platelet aggregation)
• Constriction and relaxation of blood vessels (vasoconstriction and vasodilation)
• Immune responses
• Bone development
• Heart function
• Reproductive function & sexual behavior
• Pain perception

What Does Serotonin Do?

Originally discovered in the 1940s, serotonin — also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine, or “5-HT” for short — is currently believed to play many pivotal roles in mood, behavior, gut, and overall optimal body function (homeostasis). So-called “imbalances” or other abnormalities in serotonin function have been linked with symptoms that may interfere with mental and physical health, and which can significantly impair quality of life [R, R, R].

According to some hypotheses and limited research, increasing serotonin levels may help with anxiety, depression, migraines, and constipation-predominant irritable bowel syndrome. However, more large-scale studies are needed [R, R, R].

Production and Removal

The majority of serotonin is made, stored, and released by cells in the gut lining (enterochromaffin cells). These cells make serotonin from the amino acid L-tryptophan

The post Serotonin Definition, Function & Effects of High/Low Levels appeared first on SelfHacked.

What is Serotonin?

Serotonin is an important signaling molecule throughout the brain and body. It is commonly known as the “happiness neurotransmitter” or the “happiness hormone,” due to its prominent role in regulating mood.

Serotonin plays an important role in the brain, where its main job is to transmit messages between nerve cells. According to some scientific theories, serotonin is involved in all aspects of human behavior [R, R].

24 Strategies For Increasing Serotonin Levels

When To See A Doctor

If your goal is to increase serotonin to improve your mood-related issues — including those of depression or anxiety — it’s vitally important to talk to your doctor, especially your mood is significantly impacting your daily life.

Major mood changes, such as excessive sadness, persistent low mood, euphoria, or anxiety, are all reasons to see a doctor.

Your doctor should diagnose and treat the condition causing your symptoms.

Remember that the existing evidence does not suggest that low brain serotonin directly causes mood disorders. Neither is serotonin necessarily the “only” or “main” causative factor. Complex disorders like depression involve multiple possible factors — including brain chemistry, environment, health status, and genetics — that can each vary significantly from one person to another.

Additionally, changes in brain chemistry are not something that people can change on their own with the approaches listed below. Instead, the factors listed here are meant to reduce daily stress and support overall mental health and well-being. In other words, the information in this post should never be used to replace conventional medical treatment—they are “complementary strategies” only.

Therefore, you may try the additional strategies listed below if you and your doctor determine that they could be appropriate. Read through the approaches listed here and discuss them with your doctor before trying them out. None of these strategies should ever be done in place of what your doctor recommends or prescribes.

Main Supplements

Make sure to speak with your doctor before taking any supplements. Also be sure to let them know about any other prescriptions or over-the-counter medications you may be taking, including vitamins and herbal supplements, in order to minimize the risk of experiencing adverse interactions.

This is particularly important if you are already taking medications (such as antidepressants) or

The post 24 Supplements That May Naturally Increase Serotonin appeared first on SelfHacked.

What is 5-HTP?

5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) is an amino acid that serves as a precursor for the biosynthesis of serotonin and melatonin in the brain from the amino acid tryptophan.

Currently, depression is thought to caused (at least partially) by having low levels of serotonin in the brain, however, it is still not fully understood as to what exactly causes depression [R, R].

5-HTP in supplement form is extracted from the plant Griffonia simplicifolia, an African shrub.

Testing Serotonin

It is not possible to measure serotonin levels in a human brain without a brain biopsy. Indirect markers that are good indicators of serotonin levels in the brain are cortisol levels and blood or urinary HIAA levels [R, R].

Primary Benefit of 5-HTP

The people who most commonly use 5-HTP are those who struggle with depression.

Note that 5-HTP supplements have not been approved by the FDA for medical use and generally lack solid clinical research. Regulations set manufacturing standards for them but don’t guarantee that they’re safe or effective. Speak with your doctor before supplementing.

1) Depression

In small clinical studies, 5-HTP alleviated depression better than a placebo. However, more large-scale and higher quality studies are necessary to confirm the safety and effectiveness of 5-HTP [R].

The antidepressant effects of 5-HTP have been comparable to those of some conventional antidepressants [R].

The combined use of 5-HTP and SSRIs seem to have strong synergistic effects on serotonin levels in rats and humans. Therefore, some research has investigated the use of slow-release 5-HTP in combination with SSRIs [R, R, R].

In a small clinical trial involving 52 healthy male subjects, 5-HTP and an SSRI enhanced serotonin levels by 35% and 100%, respectively. Together, however, they increased serotonin by 500% [R].

Additional clinical trials are required to demonstrate the safety and effectiveness of this approach. Do not combine 5-HTP and medications without the recommendation and supervision of a doctor.

Other Potential Benefits

5-HTP is currently under investigation for several other health benefits, for which the evidence is not as strong as in the case of depression. The available research here is considered insufficient, either because the human trials are small or because only animal studies exist. Talk to your doctor before using

The post 6 Surprising 5-HTP Benefits + Side Effects & Dosage appeared first on SelfHacked.

Serotonin Science

Beyond Mood

Serotonin is an important signaling molecule best known as the “happiness hormone.”

Scientists describe serotonin as both a hormone and a neurotransmitter. It plays an important role in the brain, where its main job is to transmit messages between nerve cells. According to some scientific theories, serotonin is involved in all aspects of human behavior [R, R].

However, brain serotonin comprises less than 2% of the total serotonin found in our bodies. Most serotonin (over 90%) is actually made, stored, and released by the gut [R, R, R].

Research suggests that serotonin is implicated in all the following processes in the body [R, R, R, R, R]:

• Mood and emotions
• Movement (motor function)
• Sleep-wake cycle
• Body temperature
• Appetite
• Bowel movements & gut functions
• Blood clotting
• Constriction and relaxation of blood vessels
• Immune responses
• Bone health
• Heart function
• Reproductive function
• Pain perception

Read more about serotonin in this article.

5HT1A Receptors

Interplay with Other Receptors

When we talk about serotonin-associated disorders, it‘s important to know that these disorders are not necessarily due to serotonin levels or production as such.

They can stem from issues with serotonin reuptake or the availability of certain serotonin receptors. There are over 15 different receptor types discovered to date, including 5-HT1A, 5-HT2A, and 5-HT2C [R, R, R].

Autoreceptors vs Postsynaptic Receptors

The 5HT1A receptor is tricky in terms of its action, because its effects depend on where and how it’s activated [R, R].

For a signal to be sent in the brain, two neurons are involved: one which sends the signal and one which receives it. The first is the presynaptic neuron; the second is the postsynaptic neuron [R, R].

In serotonin signaling, both the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons have 5HT1A receptors; the presynaptic receptors are also called autoreceptors since the same signal they release (serotonin) can bounce back to affect them in a sort of self or

The post 5-HT1A: The “Single” & “Self-Transcendent” Receptor? appeared first on SelfHacked.

What is Sceletium Tortuosum (Kanna)?

Sceletium tortuosum is a South African succulent plant. Local people traditionally ferment the plant into its medicinal form – called kanna, channa, or kougoed – and chew it to relieve hunger, thirst, and pain. Centuries-old reports of its use describe hunters and farmers washing their aching legs with kanna. Kanna is also a psychoactive herb: it is used to reduce anxiety and stress, but it is neither hallucinogenic nor addictive [R, R, R].

Modern scientific research suggests that kanna may, in fact, be a very useful herb. Its active compounds may help with anxiety and depression, improve mood, and kill pain [R].

Snapshot

Proponents:

• Promotes feelings of calm and focus
• May relieve pain
• Suppresses hunger
• Long history of traditional use
• Safe at all tested doses
• Can be grown as a houseplant

Skeptics:

• Very limited modern research pool
• Will not work for everyone
• May cause nausea in first-time users
• Potentially dangerous drug interactions
• Significant risk of bias in clinical studies

Components

Kanna’s most important chemical compounds are alkaloids: mesembrine, mesembrenone, mesembrenol, mesembranol, epimesembranol, and tortuosamine. Of these, mesembrine and mesembrenone are thought to be the most active [R, R].

Potential Benefits (Possibly Effective)

Kanna has produced positive results in multiple studies investigating these benefits, but larger and more robust studies are required to confirm its effectiveness. Furthermore, some of these studies are at significant risk of bias. Talk to your doctor before using kanna.

1) Mood

Mesembrine and complete Sceletium tortuosum extract may work as natural antidepressants. In clinical studies, people who took Sceletium tortuosum (as Zembrin, the most common commercially available extract) reported improved sleep and reduced stress. In rats, a purified extract of Sceletium tortuosum was about half as effective as imipramine, a tricyclic antidepressant drug [R, R].

A few psychiatric doctors in South Africa prescribe kanna to patients with depression,

The post 4 Sceletium tortuosum (Kanna) Benefits + Safety & Side Effects appeared first on SelfHacked.

5-HT7 receptors (5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin) receptor 7)

Serotonin, also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), is a chemical in the human body that is responsible for carrying signals along and between nerves. It is mainly found in the intestines, the brain, and the blood. Since its discovery in the 1940s, serotonin has been shown to be involved in almost every cognitive and behavioral human function including sleep, appetite, mood, aggression, pain, perception, and sexual behavior [R].

The function of serotonin is regulated by several different proteins, one of them being the 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor 7 (5-HT7 receptor). The 5-HT7 receptor has only recently been discovered and is the least studied serotonin-related protein [R].

The 5-HT7 receptors have been detected in the central nervous system (CNS) areas of the human brain, and more specifically in the regions known as thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus [R]. According to a series of studies that have been carried out using animal models, the presence of the 5-HT7 receptors within those brain regions demonstrate their implication in higher brain functions such as cognition, learning capability, memory, and perception. The receptors also play an important role in the circadian rhythm, our internal 24-hour clock that controls the sleep/wake cycle, but also in mood regulation, pain transmission and control of body temperature [R, R, R]. Interestingly, 5-HT7 receptors are also involved in the relaxation of smooth muscle cells of the circulatory system, the intestines and the reproductive system [R].

Taking into account the involvement of the 5-HT7 receptors in so many physiological processes it is not hard for one to see that the malfunction of those receptors could result in a series of health problems. The diseases that have been linked to 5-HT7 receptors are briefly presented below.

Mood disorders – Anxiety and Depression

A series of studies that have been conducted using animal models demonstrated a strong link between the 5-HT7 receptors and the development of mood disorders such as anxiety and depression. It has been shown that the administration of drugs that block the function of 5-HT7 receptors can reduce the levels of anxiety and depression. Additionally, the administration of those drugs in combination with other antidepressants increases their effect on treating depression [R, R, R].

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD)

A large number of studies have established that autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are caused by a deficiency in the brain serotonin system [R]. The link between the 5-HT7 receptors and ASD is not very clear. However, their association to behavioral flexibility, repetitive and stereotypic behaviors,

The post 5-HT7 receptors appeared first on SelfHacked.

Executive Summary

5-HT_2C receptors are a specific type of serotonin receptor. They have a very wide range of different effects depending on where they are in the brain, as well as when- and how much they are stimulated.

In general, they form one critical part of the brain’s overall serotonin system, which wouldn’t function properly without them.

However, some research has associated relatively increased stimulation of these receptors with a variety of potentially negative effects, such as increased fatigue, reduced dopamine levels and lower motivation, elevated stress reactivity (increased HPA axis activity), undesired weight loss, and lower insulin levels.

Additionally, 5-HT_2C receptor over-activation has been potentially linked to some psychiatric disorders, such as OCD and anxiety, although the exact role of these mechanisms are not fully clear yet.

Some research suggests that inflammatory cytokines may be one of the important factors that can contribute to 5-HT_2C over-activation – which may partially explain why these receptors have been reported to play a role in chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS).

Finally, some studies have reported that chronic over-activation of 5-HT_2C receptors may contribute to disturbances in the circadian rhythm, the “master clock” that your body relies on to regulate the sleep cycle and other important biological processes.

While you probably wouldn’t ever want to knock these receptors out entirely, there is some early evidence that there may be some “natural” ways to counteract over-active 5-HT_2C receptor activity. Doing so could – in theory – potentially alleviate some of the symptoms or effects associated with elevated 5-HT_2C receptor activity, such as fatigue, low motivation, chronic stress, or mild anxiety.

For example, some of the dietary and lifestyle factors that have been linked to reduced 5-HT_2C receptor activity include social interaction, sexual activity, staying well-hydrated, and supplementing with fish oil or curcumin [R, R, R]. However,

The post 5-HT2C Receptors: What Are They, And What Do They Do? appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: This post is not a recommendation or endorsement for buspirone. This medication is only FDA-approved for the treatment of certain specific medical disorders, and can only be taken by prescription and with oversight from a licensed medical professional. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about the science behind buspirone’s effects, mechanisms, and current medical uses.

What is Buspirone?

Buspirone is an anti-anxiety medication (anxiolytic) that is sold under the brand name Buspar. It is chemically and pharmacologically distinct from other anti-anxiety drugs such as benzodiazepines and offers reduced anxiety without physical dependence or withdrawal symptoms [R, R].

Buspirone is most commonly used for generalized anxiety disorder but is also prescribed occasionally for anxiety related to other brain-related disorders such as depression, attention deficit disorder, social phobia, Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s [R, R].

Mechanism of Action

The mechanism of action of buspirone is not fully understood. It is known that buspirone binds to serotonin (5-HT1A) receptors and partially mimics the action of serotonin. Serotonin is a chemical in the brain that promotes feelings of well-being and happiness [R, R].

Buspirone is also able to partially block the action of some dopamine receptors (DRD2) [R, R].

When buspirone is broken down by the body, one of the major byproducts called 1-PP becomes quite concentrated in the blood. 1-PP can block the activity of a receptor that epinephrine/adrenaline activates (α2-adrenergic), which could account for some of the anti-depressant effects of buspirone [R, R, R, R].

When taken by mouth (20 mg) it is rapidly absorbed and reaches its peak concentration within the blood in less than an hour. It takes 2.5 hours for half of the initial dose to be removed from the body (half-life). However, like most anti-anxiety medications, it may take 3-4 weeks until you start to feel relief from symptoms [R, R].

Approved Medical Uses

1) Anxiety

Buspirone treatment is more effective than placebo in treating and maintaining stability for generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

The post 5 Buspirone Uses, Side Effects, Dosage + Natural Options appeared first on SelfHacked.