Disclaimer: This post is not a recommendation or endorsement for the use of any of the particular compounds or drugs discussed in this post. The FDA has not approved any of these compounds for “cognitive-enhancement” purposes, and the available research on them is still in a very early stage overall. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about what science currently says about these substances’ potential uses and mechanisms.

Drugs Proposed to Improve Memory

INSUFFICIENT EVIDENCE:

Much of the research on the compounds listed below is still in a very early stage, and in most cases, it is not yet possible to come to any firm conclusions about their relative efficacy and safety in human users.

Therefore, the potential effects listed below are still considered to have insufficient evidence, and these findings should be taken with a grain of salt until further research work – including large-scale clinical trials in healthy human users – is performed.

1) Semax

Semax is a drug that has been used in Russia for treating strokes and head injuries, and which has also been claimed to potentially improve learning capacities and memory formation [R].

Semax is not approved by the FDA for use in the United States due to a lack of adequate safety and effectiveness data.

According to some early studies in animals and humans, some of semax’s reported effects include:

• Protecting against low oxygen (hypoxia) by promoting the survival of neurons when the brain is not receiving enough oxygen (in rats) [R]
• Enhancing attention and memory storage [R]
• Influencing the formation of newly-learned information and memories [R]
• Increasing selective attention at the moment of receiving information, as well as strengthening and promoting overall learning abilities [R]
• Improving memory and attention in healthy men under extreme conditions [R]

Some of the potential mechanisms that have been suggested to be behind the effects of Semax include:

• Increasing enkephalins (a natural opiate neurotransmitter), which may be involved in memory formation, consolidation, and reactivation/recall [

The post Racetams & Nootropic Drugs: Does the Limitless Pill Exist? appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: This post is not a recommendation or endorsement for modafinil. This medication is only FDA-approved for the treatment of certain specific medical disorders, and can only be taken by prescription and with oversight from a licensed medical professional. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about the science behind modafinil’s effects, mechanisms, current medical uses, and potential risks.

What is Modafinil?

Modafinil is a wakefulness-promoting stimulant medication that is most commonly used to treat the symptoms of sleep/wakefulness disorders.

For example, modafinil has been FDA-approved for the treatment of chronic fatigue, excessive daytime sleepiness (narcolepsy), obstructive sleep apnea, and shift-work sleep disorder [R].

In the US, modafinil is an FDA-regulated substance, and can be only legally obtained and used by a doctor’s prescription.

Unfortunately, many people also obtain and abuse modafinil illegally, in part due to widespread claims or beliefs that it can enhance cognition, boost mood, increase physical energy (e.g. for athletic training), or alleviate the symptoms of “brain fog” [R].

Although the evidence for these various “enhancement” effects is generally quite weak, illegal abuse of modafinil continues to be increasingly widespread among professionals and students. For example, many reliable survey studies have reported that as much as 20% of university students have illegally abused modafinil or other stimulants (such as Adderall and other amphetamines) in order to “improve their focus” or “enhance their attention” [R, R, R, R].

Modafinil abuse is also widespread among athletes, which has led to it being officially banned for use by professional athletes by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) [R].

When it comes to the legitimate medical use of modafinil, it is generally believed to produce relatively fewer side-effects, and have relatively lower potential for abuse and addiction, compared to other psychostimulant medications — and this is one of the reasons that modafinil has been officially FDA-approved for the treatment of certain medical conditions [R, R].

However, there are still some legitimate reasons to be cautious or skeptical. For one, there is

The post All About Modafinil: Official Uses, Mechanisms, Side-Effects + More appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: This post is not a recommendation or endorsement for the use of sunifiram. The FDA has not approved this drug for any specific medical or other use, and the available research on it is still in a very early stage, without adequate data to come to any conclusions about its general efficacy or safety in humans. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about what science currently says about sunifiram’s mechanisms, potential effects, and possible side-effects.

What is Sunifiram?

Sunifiram, or “DM-235”, is an experimental drug that was originally developed with the goal of treating the symptoms of cognitive decline in Alzheimer’s disease patients [R].

However, research on sunifiram was eventually discontinued due to a lack of research funding, and its patent expired. Therefore, sunifiram has never been tested on humans, and its potential long-term toxicity and general safety in healthy human users remains unknown [R].

In addition, sunifiram hasn’t been officially approved by any country for any medical or other use. It is currently only sold online – by unverified vendors – as a so-called “smart drug”, or “nootropic” [R].

Mechanism of Action

Sunifiram is believed to be somewhat similar in molecular structure to piracetam, which has led some researchers to speculate that it may have somewhat similar effects throughout the body and the brain [R].

However, this belief is entirely speculative – and drugs that are chemically and molecularly similar can still have dramatically different effects.

Additionally, some early evidence suggests that sunifiram may be up to 1,000 times more potent than piracetam [R] – which, if true, raises additional doubts about just how similar sunifiram might actually be to these other drugs.

Therefore, the precise mechanisms involved in the actions of sunifiram remain unknown. However, some preliminary research suggests that it probably acts on a wide variety of different targets within the body and brain [R].

Some

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What is Atomoxetine?

Atomoxetine (brand name Strattera) is a prescription medication that is used primarily used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

Originally developed as an antidepressant, atomoxetine was approved in 2002 by the FDA for the treatment of ADHD in children and adults [R].

Is Atomoxetine a Stimulant?

Atomoxetine is unique among ADHD medications because it is not considered a stimulant. Other ADHD drugs, such as Adderall or Ritalin, are classified as Schedule II drugs by the FDA, meaning they have a high risk for abuse [R].

As a non-stimulant, atomoxetine has a minimal risk of drug abuse. The drawback is that atomoxetine appears to be less effective for ADHD symptoms compared to stimulant medications, according to research [R, R].

Atomoxetine has a lower risk for drug abuse because it primarily works on only one neurotransmitter – norepinephrine. Stimulant medications typically affect several other neurotransmitters, including dopamine and serotonin [R].

How Does Atomoxetine Work?

Brain cells (neurons) communicate with each other by releasing molecules into a small area between them called the synaptic cleft. The molecules they release are called neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine [R].

Normally, special transporters will remove neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft once they have had their intended effect. However, atomoxetine works by blocking the transporter that removes norepinephrine. This allows norepinephrine to act longer and have a greater effect [R].

Atomoxetine specifically targets the prefrontal cortex area of the brain. This region of the brain is responsible for various functions including planning, decision making, and memory [R, R].

There is also evidence that atomoxetine may block dopamine reuptake in the prefrontal cortex. More importantly, it does not appear to affect dopamine levels in the reward center of the brain. This may, in part, explain why atomoxetine is less addictive than other ADHD medications [R].

Uses of Atomoxetine

FDA-Approved Uses

ADHD

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common mental disorder in children and adults that causes poor focus and impulse control and excessive activity [R].

Atomoxetine is FDA-approved for the treatment of ADHD.

The post Atomoxetine (Strattera) Uses, Side Effects, & Dosage appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: By writing this post, we are not recommending this drug. Some of our readers who were already taking the drug requested that we commission a post on it, and we are simply providing information that is available in the clinical and scientific literature. Please discuss your medications with your doctor.

What Is Idebenone?

Idebenone is a synthetic drug developed in Japan in the 1980s to treat neurodegenerative conditions. It has a similar structure to ubiquinone (coenzyme Q10), which is an antioxidant that also has an essential role in mitochondrial energy production [R, R].

Idebenone is claimed to be helpful in a number of diseases stemming from mitochondrial dysfunction. Because of its antioxidant ability, it is thought to boost skin health and play a beneficial role in the health of brain cells [R, R].

Since the core structure of idebenone is the same as ubiquinone, they may function in a similar manner. They both carry electrons through the electron transport chain, the energy (ATP) producing process in the mitochondria. Idebenone mixes more easily in the blood than ubiquinone, and therefore, crosses the blood-brain barrier (BBB) more efficiently [R, R].

Mechanism of Action

Idebenone neutralizes free radicals called reactive oxidative species (ROS) in the mitochondria, helping prevent oxidative damage in cells. Additionally, by moving electrons down the electron transport chain, idebenone can restore energy (ATP) production in damaged cells [R, R].

Although glutamate is an important neurotransmitter, excess levels can damage brain cells due to their overexcitation (excitotoxicity). Idebenone can prevent brain cell damage caused by glutamate. It also increases the levels of nerve growth factor (NGF), a neurotransmitter responsible for the growth, development, and survival of brain cells. Increased NGF levels can improve overall cognitive function [R, R].

Snapshot

Proponents

• May improve cognitive decline in people with Alzheimer’s and other types of dementia
• May help with some rare hereditary disorders such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy and Leber’s disease

The post Uses of Idebenone + Side Effects appeared first on SelfHacked.

Note: We recommend strongly against using coluracetam or any other unapproved experimental drug. Some of our readers who were already taking the drug requested that we commission a post on it and we are simply providing information that is available in the clinical and scientific literature. Please discuss your medications with your doctor.

What is Coluracetam?

Coluracetam, also known as BCI-540 or MKC-231, is a nootropic of the racetam class.

Coluracetam was originally studied in Japan in the mid-1990s for Alzheimer’s treatment. These studies showed coluracetam’s ability to repair memory and learning in mice with damaged nerve cells. However, none of the research on Alzheimer’s has ever been published [R].

Coluracetam’s second round of research, by Brain Cells Inc., on more than 100 people with major depression and anxiety, is reported to have shown benefits for major depressive disorder (MDD). However, these trials were never published either.

Mechanism of Action

Coluracetam is unique among brain enhancers in that it improves choline uptake in the nerve cells via the choline uptake system (HACU) in cell studies. This choline uptake system could potentially increase the amount of acetylcholine in the brain. According to some researchers, coluracetam could, therefore, restore this choline uptake system after nerve cell damage; this has yet to be confirmed in animal or human trials [R, R, R].

Coluracetam also protects the NMDA receptors from glutamate toxicity. Damage to these receptors is involved in stroke, Alzheimer’s, traumatic brain injury, and other brain diseases [R].

Treatment-Resistant Depression Study

In a study (double-blind randomized controlled trial) of 101 people with depression who had failed treatment with 2 antidepressants and also had anxiety, coluracetam had a positive effect on depression scores at doses of 80 mg 3 times daily [R].

Unfortunately, this is the only published human study on coluracetam. There is nowhere near enough evidence to support its use, and safety data is also sorely lacking. The risks overwhelm the potential benefits; this is why we strongly recommend against using coluracetam.

Animal Research on Coluracetam

No clinical evidence supports the use of coluracetam for any of the conditions listed in this section. Below is a summary of the existing animal and cell-based

The post 3 Potential Uses of Coluracetam + Side Effects & Safety appeared first on SelfHacked.

What is Prl-8-53?

Prl-8-53 is a research compound that was first created in the 1970s. Its full scientific name is methyl 3-(2-(benzyl (methyl) amino) ethyl) benzoate.

It is popular as a nootropic supplement that is believed to boost cognitive function and memory.

Despite positive anecdotal experiences from some users, there is only one human study and one rat study on Prl-8-53, which were both were done in the 1970s. In addition, there currently is no ongoing research on this compound [R, R].

Mechanism of Action

Prl-8-53’s mechanisms of actions are unknown. According to some researchers, it may enhance the brain activity of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter that plays a role in learning and memory [R].

In addition, some researchers suggest that Prl-8-53 may increase dopamine levels, which play a role in memory, motivation, and fatigue. It may also block serotonin production, which plays a role in anxiety, depression, and insomnia [R, R].

However, the human study did not directly study these changes in neurotransmitter levels [R].

Effects of Prl-8-53

Insufficient Evidence For:

Improved Memory

Prl-8-53 has only been studied in one clinical trial that was performed in 1978, which was funded by the developer of the compound. This clinical trial was a double-blind randomized controlled study of 47 healthy adults who took a 5 mg dose of Prl-8-53 [R].

According to the study, those who took Prl-8-53 were able to better recall test questions in a word recollection test than the ones who took a placebo pill. Most patients were able to better recite the correct order of words up to 4 days after listening to the words [R].

Researchers also found that those who struggled in the recollection test on placebo (below 50% correct) showed significant improvement with Prl-8-53. However, average and high scoring participants didn’t improve significantly [R].

One rat study has also examined the effects of Prl-8-53. This study used an avoidance learning test to study Prl-8-53’s memory effects. The avoidance learning test studies how well a rat can remember a response to avoid a stressful situation. The study found that rats had improved memory after Prl-8-53 supplementation [R].

No other studies

The post Possible Effects of Prl-8-53 + Dosage & Reviews appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: This post is not a recommendation or endorsement for the use of pramiracetam. The FDA has not approved this drug for any specific medical or other use, and the available research on it is still in a very early stage, without adequate data to come to any firm conclusions about its general efficacy or safety in humans. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about what science currently says about pramiracetam’s mechanisms, potential effects, and possible side-effects.

What is Pramiracetam?

Pramiracetam – sometimes also known as Pramistar – is a cognitive enhancer (“nootropic”) drug that is synthesized from piracetam, the original drug in the “racetam” family of drugs.

Pramiracetam was developed in 1979 by Parke-Davis, a division of the Warner-Lambert pharmaceutical company. Pramiracetam was at first distributed under the brand name Pramistar. Now, it is part of Pfizer, since Warner-Lambert merged with Pfizer in 2000.

Based on some early animal research in the late 1980s, pramiracetam was reported to have cognitive effects in rats. Additionally, it was also reported to be as much as 13 times more potent (meaning that the researchers observed effects that were equivalent to piracetam with a dose that was only 1/13th the size) [R].

Unfortunately, like many nootropic drugs, pramiracetam has not been extensively studied by scientists, so only a little is known about its potential effects and mechanisms. Also like many nootropic drugs, many interesting claims have been made about this drug’s effects on cognitive ability. But are these effects backed up by science, or are they just empty hype? In the rest of this post, we’ll discuss what the current science says about this drug, and see if the evidence really backs up all the claims that have been made about it.

Mechanism of Action

Like all racetams, the mechanisms behind pramiracetam are not fully understood, primarily due to a lack of extensive research.

However, some early studies have pointed towards a few of the following potential mechanisms:

• May increase acetylcholine levels (by increasing

The post What Do We Know About Pramiracetam? Potential Effects, Dosage & More appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: This post is not a recommendation or endorsement for the use of oxiracetam. The FDA has not approved this drug for any specific medical or other use, and the available research on it is still in a very early stage, without adequate data to come to any firm conclusions about its general efficacy or safety in humans. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about what science currently says about oxiracetam’s mechanisms, potential effects, and possible side-effects.

What is Oxiracetam?

Oxiracetam is a member of the racetam family of drugs. These drugs were originally developed with the aim of treating memory loss and cognitive decline due to age or disease [R].

Oxiracetam is one of the first racetam drug varieties derived from piracetam, the “original” (and most “popular”) member of the racetam family. Racetams are widely claimed to be “nootropics”, or “cognitive-enhancing” drugs that some people believe can help improve memory and other cognitive functions [R, R].

However, clinical studies about oxiracetam are lacking, and relatively little is known about its efficacy or relative safety in healthy human users.

Although it is a potentially serious drug with potential for misuse, adverse side-effects, and other risks, oxiracetam is currently sold as a “dietary supplement” in the U.S. However, keep in mind that the FDA has not approved this drug for any specific medical application or other use [R].

Oxiracetam Mechanism of Action

Like all racetams, the mechanisms behind oxiracetam are not fully understood, largely due to a lack of extensive research.

However, some early studies have pointed towards a few of the following potential mechanisms:

• May stimulate the production of cellular energy, such as glucose [R]
• May increase acetylcholine (ACh) activity [R]
• May suppress pre-programmed cell death (apoptosis) in neurons [R]

Additionally, according to one early animal study in rats, oxiracetam may facilitate the influx

The post What Do We Know About Oxiracetam? Purported Effects, Potential Risks, and More appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: This post is not a recommendation or endorsement for the use of any of the particular compounds or drugs discussed in this post. The FDA has not approved any of these compounds for “cognitive-enhancement” purposes, and the available research on them is still in a very early stage overall. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about what science currently says about these substances’ potential uses and mechanisms.

9 Supplements and Compounds That May Improve Memory

POSSIBLY EFFECTIVE:

Compounds that fall into this category are considered to be “possibly effective”. This means that while it’s not 100% certain that they are effective, a fair number of early studies have been done on them, and their findings tend to lean in the direction of suggesting some potential efficacy.

Nonetheless, it should be kept in mind that these supplements still have not been officially FDA-approved for any specific purpose, and much more research will still be needed to fully confirm their potential efficacy and overall safety in healthy human users.

1) Huperzine A

Huperzine A has been reported to have several neuroprotective effects [R].

In addition to these potential brain-protecting effects, some preliminary research also reports that huperzine A may have some effects on specific cognitive functions, such as learning and memory.

For example, one early human study reported that huperzine A appeared to enhance the memory and learning of junior middle school students who were complaining of memory problems [R].

Huperzine A has also been reported to be relatively well-tolerated, and showed promising treatment potential (possibly significant memory improvement) in patients with Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia, according to one early study [R].

Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease patients experience degeneration in the nucleus basalis, a region of the brain that is extremely rich in acetylcholine cells. According to one study in an animal model, Huperzine A was reported to help restore healthy brain electrical activity (EEG). In animals suffering from lesions in this brain region, Huperzine A was also reported to reduce impairments in cognitive and memory functions caused by brain lesions [R].

How Huperzine A May Improve Memory:

• Possibly increasing

The post 10 Natural Nootropic Supplements that May Improve Memory appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: This post is not a recommendation or endorsement for the use of noopept. The FDA has not approved this compound for any specific medical or other use, and the available research on it is still in an early stage. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about what science currently says about noopept’s potential effects, mechanisms, and side-effects.

What is Noopept?

Noopept is a purported “nootropic”, or “cognitive-enhancing” drug that is believed to be up to 1,000 times more potent than piracetam (meaning that it may have similar effect sizes with doses that are up to 1,000x smaller) [R].

While piracetam affects the early stages of memory processing, noopept is claimed to do this as well as improving the consolidation and retrieval stages of memory [R].

Noopept is also claimed to have anti-anxiety, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects, while also improving blood flow. Additionally, some claim that it may even protect the brain against certain forms of neurotoxicity (such as build-up of amyloid beta, which is believed to be the main cause of Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease) [R].

At least, these are some of the claims that have been made about Noopept’s effects. Unfortunately, not much research has been done on this relatively new compound – and the data that is currently available paints a complex and often mixed picture regarding its general efficacy or safety for human use.

It is also important to note that while it is legal to purchase, like many so-called “nootropic” drugs, Noopept has not been FDA-approved for any particular medical (or other) use.

In other words, a lot of the information on Noopept that you might come across online often comes primarily from people who casually experiment with this compound, rather than from hard science or large-scale clinical studies.

How Does Noopept Work?

Noopept, like many so-called “nootropic” drugs, is a relatively new compound, and not much extensive research has been done on it yet.

For this reason, the exact mechanisms that it affects in the body and brain are not fully understood yet.

The post Noopept: Purported Uses, Side-Effects, and Risks appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: This post is not a recommendation or endorsement for the use of picamilon. The FDA has not approved this compound for any specific medical or other use, and the available research on it is still in a very early stage. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about what science currently says about picamilon’s potential effects, mechanisms, and side-effects.

What is Picamilon?

Picamilon (nicotinoyl-gamma-aminobutyric acid) is a synthetic combination of GABA and niacin (vitamin B3) that has been used by some in the past for the treatment of anxiety disorders, among other potential applications [R].

GABA is one of the major inhibitory neurotransmitters in the brain. Although its range of mechanisms and functions are complex, it has been generally associated with relaxing and anti-anxiety effects when its levels are increased [R, R].

Niacin is a vitamin involved in DNA repair, fat and cholesterol synthesis, and the widening (dilation) of blood vessels.

Picamilon was first developed in the Soviet Union in the late 1960s and has been sold as a prescription drug for anxiety in Russia since the 1980s [R, R].

Picamilon is not approved as a prescription drug in the United States. In 2015, the FDA ruled that picamilon can’t be sold as a dietary supplement because not enough is known about its effects or its safety, and subsequently ordered five different supplement companies to remove it from their products. However, there are still some companies based in the United States that sell it illegally. Additionally, a review of the available consumer versions of picamilon reported that the dosages can vary wildly from product to product – ranging from as little as 2.7 mg all the way up to over 700mg – and users cannot always be sure exactly what these supplements contain, which raises many major questions related to consumer safety [R].

Mechanism of Action

When taken as an oral supplement by itself, GABA is generally not able to cross the blood-brain barrier (only a small amount does). However, picamilon (i.e. a compound formulation in which GABA is bound to niacin)

The post What Do We Know About Picamilon? Purported Uses, Side-Effects + More appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: This post is not a recommendation or endorsement for the use of piracetam. The FDA has not approved this drug for any specific medical or other use, and the available research on it is still in a very early stage. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about what science currently says about piracetam’s potential effects, mechanisms, and side-effects.

What is Piracetam?

Piracetam is the “original” racetam, and is believed to be much less potent than other compounds in the “racetam” family.

The racetam family of synthetic compounds are characterized by their chemical structures, which contain a pyrrolidone lactam ring. Piracetam and other racetams – such as oxiracetam and aniracetam – are considered cognitive enhancers or nootropics, while others – like levetiracetam – are used to as anticonvulsants to treat some forms of epilepsy.

Unfortunately, despite its popularity among the “nootropics” community, there appears to be little well-controlled, clinical research on the effects of piracetam in young, healthy human users.

However, there is a decent amount of research on the use of piracetam in elderly populations with dementia, as well as in schizophrenics, and those suffering from neurodegenerative disorders caused by head trauma, stroke, and alcoholism.

Mechanism of Action

How piracetam exactly works is not fully understood. However, according to some preliminary research, it has been proposed to have several actions in the brain, such as [R]:

• Increasing the number of acetylcholine (ACh) receptors in the brain
• Enhancing energy metabolism (such as increased oxygen utilization, mitochondrial permeability, and cytochrome B5 synthesis)
• GABA-like characteristics
• Antioxidant properties

According to reports from many of its users, racetams are often supplemented alongside choline donors (such as alpha-GPC and citicoline), as their mechanism is thought to deplete choline stores in the brain [R].

For example, administration of piracetam has been reported to cause a decrease in acetylcholine levels in the hippocampus of animals. Piracetam and choline taken together have also been reported to

The post Piracetam Uses & Side-Effects appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: This post is not a recommendation or endorsement for Vyvanse. This medication is only FDA-approved for the treatment of certain specific medical disorders, and can only be taken by prescription and with oversight from a licensed medical professional. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about the science behind Vyvanse’s effects, mechanisms, and current medical uses.

What Is Vyvanse?

Vyvanse is the brand name for a compound called lisdexamfetamine dimesylate (LDX). Vyvanse is a drug often used to treat ADHD in both children and adults, as well as binge eating disorder (BED). It is only available via a doctor’s prescription [R, R, R].

Vyvanse is a central nervous system stimulant with a slow onset and long duration of action. Its effects can last up to 14 hours [R, R, R].

Due to Vyvanse’s slow release, it generally only needs to be taken once daily. It is generally believed that this slow release also significantly lowers the risk of it being abused for recreational or other illegal purposes (although abuse is still possible). This is one of the main medical advantages of Vyvanse over traditional stimulants like Adderall [R].

Mechanism of Action

Vyvanse is a “prodrug,” which means that it is a biologically inactive compound that is only turned into an active drug after being processed by the body.

The active ingredient of Vyvanse is d-amphetamine (dextroamphetamine), which is bonded to L-lysine. This means that the d-amphetamine is not active until it is detached from the L-lysine. This process occurs in the blood after the prodrug is digested by the small intestine. The active drug is then gradually converted into the active form in the bloodstream, resulting in continuous delivery of d-amphetamine to the patient [R, R, R, R].

All of the main effects of Vyvanse are due to the d-amphetamine it contains. D-amphetamine is a norepinephrine-dopamine-releasing agent (NDRA) that primarily increases the levels of dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine throughout the brain. It also increases serotonin levels and

The post Vyvanse: Uses, Side Effects, & More appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: This post is not a recommendation or endorsement for adrafinil. This drug has not been approved by the FDA for any specific medical uses, and relatively little is known for sure about its effects or safety in humans. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about the science behind adrafinil’s mechanisms and potential effects.

What Is Adrafinil?

Adrafinil is a synthetic drug that is often touted to promote long-lasting mental arousal. Adrafinil is a non-amphetamine psychostimulant which reduces drowsiness but does not increase heart rate or anxiety [R].

It is often experimented with as a “nootropic” or supposedly “cognitive-enhancing” drug. However, this use is not medically approved, and the science behind its potential effects on cognition is still in a very early stage, with highly mixed (and often conflicting) results.

As a “prodrug” (an inactive compound that is converted into the active drug inside the body) for the prescription stimulant modafinil, adrafinil becomes active by converting to modafinil in the body. Adrafinil’s effects and mechanisms are therefore most likely identical to those of modafinil, although the relative lack of research on adrafinil specifically means that some significant differences are still a possibility [R].

Adrafinil was originally designed to treat narcolepsy and attention disorders in the elderly. It was sold in France under the name Olmifon, but was discontinued in 2011. Adrafinil was discontinued because it was less potent than modafinil, and required higher doses to achieve a similar effect [R].

Adrafinil is unscheduled in the United States, Canada, and the UK, where it is considered a “dietary supplement” rather than a prescription drug. This means it is neither FDA-approved nor controlled, and does not require a prescription to purchase or possess. In contrast, adrafinil does require a prescription in other countries, such as Australia, Germany, and New Zealand.

However, don’t be misled by the fact that it’s “technically legal” in some places. As a prodrug of modafinil – which is a controlled substance with known potential for abuse – it shares essentially the

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Disclaimer: This post is not a recommendation or endorsement for the use of fasoracetam. The FDA has not approved this drug for any specific medical or other use, and the available research on it is still in a very early stage, without adequate data to come to any conclusions about its general efficacy or safety in humans. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about what science currently says about fasoracetam’s mechanisms, potential effects, and possible side-effects.

What is Fasoracetam?

Fasoracetam – also sometimes known as NS-105, LAM-105, and NFC-1 – is a purported “nootropic” (a “cognitive enhancer” or “smart drug”) that belongs to the racetam family of drugs.

It was first developed in the early 1990s by the Japanese pharmaceutical company Nippon Shinyaku, with the intention of treating vascular dementia. The company spent over $200 million developing fasoracetam: however, the drug failed to make it past phase 3 clinical trials due to a lack of efficacy, and was eventually abandoned.

In 2013, interest in fasoracetam was revived when a company called NeuroFix purchased the clinical data for the drug from Nippon Shinyaku. NeuroFix was later acquired by Aevi Genomic Medicine, which began clinical trials in 2016 in adolescents with ADHD, autism, or anxiety, who have mutations in the glutamate receptor gene. Fasoracetam is currently in phase 2 clinical trials [R, R, R].

However, this also means that fasoracetam has not yet been approved by the FDA for any specific medical use.

Additionally, the fact that it is a relatively new substance means that it has not been extensively studied, and as such, it is not possible to make any firm conclusions about how effective or safe it may be – at least, not without a lot more research, including clinical trials in human users.

In this post, we will review some of the current evidence about fasoracetam’s mechanisms and purported effects. Nonetheless, as you read on, it’s important to keep in mind that all of this evidence is still in a very early stage, and any claims about this compound’s effects should, therefore, be taken with a healthy grain of salt!

Mechanism of Action

Like all

The post Fasoracetam: What We Know So Far (Potential Uses, Mechanisms, and Side Effects) appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: This post is not a recommendation or endorsement for the use of phenylpiracetam. The FDA has not approved this drug for any specific medical or other use, and the available research on it is still in a very early stage, without adequate data to come to any conclusions about its general efficacy or safety in humans. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about what science currently says about phenylpiracetam’s mechanisms, potential effects, and possible side-effects.

What Is Phenylpiracetam?

Phenylpiracetam is a nootropic drug that has been recently added to the racetam family.

Just like its parent molecule piracetam, it has been claimed to enhance memory, cognitive function, and even physical strength. Additionally, it has also been reported to be up to 30 to 60 times more potent than piracetam [R].

For these reasons, phenylpiracetam has been gaining popularity among users of “nootropics”, or “cognitive-enhancing” drugs. Interestingly, phenylpiracetam has recently been banned from use by the Olympics committee due to concerns that it could be abused as a performance enhancer by athletes.

Phenylpiracetam is essentially a piracetam molecule with a phenyl group attached to it. This addition increases its bioavailability and ability to pass through the blood-brain barrier, compared to regular piracetam (as this new molecule is now fat-soluble) [R].

The addition of a phenyl group is also believed to increase the compound’s affinity for a variety of neurotransmitter transporters, which may be involved in some of its purported effects on various types of brain activity [R].

While most of phenylpiracetam’s popularity is based on claims that it may improve brain function and physical strength, some very preliminary evidence does exist which suggests that phenylpiracetam may also be helpful for reducing certain symptoms of depression and anxiety [R].

However, it’s unclear exactly how much of phenylpiracetam’s popularity is just based on hype, as the actual science behind these purported effects is, at best, relatively modest.

Phenylpiracetam is sold as a prescription-only drug in Russia under the name Phenotropil. While not prescribed as a pharmaceutical in the United States, it is an uncontrolled and unscheduled substance, meaning

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Disclaimer: This post is not an endorsement or recommendation for aniracetam. It is classified as an unapproved experimental drug by the FDA, which means that its safety and effectiveness are unknown. Aniracetam may have a high potential for harm. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and none of the information in this post should ever be used as a replacement for conventional medical care. Always make sure to speak to your doctor before experimenting with aniracetam or any other supplements.

What is Aniracetam?

Overview

Aniracetam is a type of racetam, a class of compounds that have a similar core chemical structure and variable effects on the brain.

This compound was developed in the 1970s by the Swiss pharmaceutical company Hoffmann-La Roche.

Proper scientific evidence is lacking to determine the effectiveness and safety of aniracetam.

Despite this, online vendors sell aniracetam (N-anisoyl-2-pyrrolidinone) as a nootropic, misleadingly marketing it for boosting mood, focus, and memory.

FDA Status and Warnings

The FDA recently issued warnings to several companies that were illegally producing and selling racetams [R, R].

In the warning, the FDA reinstates that all racetams, including aniracetam, are new unapproved drugs since they are not generally recognized as safe and effective for the labeled uses among experts.

Proposed Mechanism of Action

Like all racetams, the mechanisms of action are not fully understood.

Scientists are investigating whether aniracetam has the following effects on the brain, based on animal and cellular data:

• AMPA receptors are activated by the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate. Aniracetam binds to AMPA receptors, amplifying their response to glutamate activation and causing the release of noradrenaline [R, R].
• Aniracetam slows down AMPA receptors desensitization to glutamate. Desensitization is when receptors no longer or less efficiently respond to neurotransmitters after prolonged exposure [R].
• Aniracetam also binds to another class of glutamate receptors called kainate receptors and increases the effects of glutamate stimulation [R].
• Aniracetam is cholinergic, meaning it increases acetylcholine transmission in the brain [R].
• Aniracetam reduces dopamine levels in certain areas of the brain (striatum and hypothalamus) and increases serotonin levels in

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What are Racetams?

Overview

Racetams are a class of drugs that have the same chemical backbone (a pyrrolidone nucleus).

PIracetam is the “original” racetam. It was discovered in the late 1960s. Since then, more than twenty derivatives have been synthesized. These piracetam-like compounds have been poorly researched and vary in potency and potential mode of action [R].

The exact mechanisms of how each racetam works is not understood. Racetams research is extremely limited. Much of what we know about the racetam comes from animal studies.

Proper scientific evidence is lacking to determine the effectiveness and safety of any racetam.

Despite this, some companies advertise racetams as smart drugs and nootropic compounds. They’ve been marketed for boosting the production of neurotransmitters. Some claim it may make people feel more energetic and focused. These claims are unsubstantiated.

FDA Status & Warnings

In 2003, piracetam failed the new dietary ingredient (NDI) filing, which is a process used to determine the safety of novel ingredients on the market. It did not meet the definition of a supplement.

Instead, the FDA classified piracetam as a new, unapproved drug. The same goes for all subsequent racetams.

The FDA recently issued warnings to several companies that were illegally producing and selling racetams [R, R].

In the warning, the FDA reinstates that all racetams, including piracetam, are new unapproved drugs since they are not generally recognized as safe and effective for the labeled uses among experts.

Despite this, racetams like piracetam continue to be sold online.

The 2019 Hermitage Company case is a serious warning to all such companies. It involves a man from Hermitage, Pennsylvania, who pleaded guilty to a charge of conspiracy. He was importing and selling illegal drugs manufactured in Russia and China via his website. Piracetam and phenylpiracetam were on the list of the illegal drugs under his belt [R].

This poses a major risk to public health. The production of these drugs goes against important laws and regulations. It leads to the sale of dangerous, adulterated, and misbranded compounds to consumers.

Uses of Racetams Lacking Evidence

All racetams – including aniracetam, piracetam, oxiracetam, pramiracetam, and phenylpiracetam – are classified by the FDA as unapproved new drugs.

The post A Comparison Of 4 Racetams and Their Risks appeared first on SelfHacked.

What Is Cerebrolysin?

Cerebrolysin is purported to be a nootropic, a “smart drug” that can improve cognitive function. It is a mixture of amino acids and proteins derived from pig brains, including:

• Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) [R]
• Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) [R]
• Nerve growth factor (NGF) [R]
• Ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) [R]

These proteins are also found naturally in the human brain, where they play an important role in brain cell development and repair [R].

Cerebrolysin is not approved for medical use in the United States. However, this drug is sometimes used in a number of European and Asian countries for the treatment of stroke, traumatic brain injury, and dementia [R, R].

How Does Cerebrolysin Work?

According to research, Cerebrolysin may work by:

• Protecting brain cells and preventing their death due to harmful conditions [R, R].
• Promoting the growth of new brain cells [R].
• Improving brain cell communication, which enhances learning capacity [R, R, R].
• Increasing brain energy (by increasing glucose uptake by brain cells) and protein production in cells [R, R].
• Decreasing brain levels of beta-amyloid deposits, which are linked to Alzheimer’s disease [R].
• Lowering inflammation in the brain [R].

Uses of Cerebrolysin

Cerebrolysin is not approved for medical treatment in the United States. Other countries sometimes use this drug for the treatment of several conditions, which are described below. Cerebrolysin should always be taken under the guidance of a doctor.

1) Stroke

A number of clinical studies suggest that Cerebrolysin may help improve cognition, motor function, and recovery time in patients that have experienced an acute stroke [R, R, R, R, R, R].

For example, one randomized placebo-controlled multicenter clinical trial of 208 patients examined the effects of taking Cerebrolysin within 72 hours of a stroke and for 21 days after. Researchers found that those on Cerebrolysin performed better on tests

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What Is L-Theanine?

L-theanine is an amino acid mostly found in tea leaves and fungi and used to help improve mood and lower stress, and to protect the brain and heart [R, R].

Theanine usually refers to L-theanine, which has more potential health benefits compared to d-theanine.

Natural Sources of L-Theanine

• Tea (especially green tea) [R, R]
• Bay bolete mushroom [R]

How Does L-Theanine Work?

L-theanine is able to cross the blood-brain barrier and affect the brain directly. In the brain, it may target brain chemicals that regulate arousal, anxiety, pleasure, and attention [R].

L-theanine increases brain serotonin and dopamine levels, which may improve memory and learning. It also increases the levels and effectiveness of GABA, the body’s main inhibitory neurotransmitter, and stimulates alpha brain wave activity, which may cause mental relaxation, concentration, and deep REM sleep [R, R, R, R, R, R].

L-theanine may also increase glutathione levels, the body’s most important antioxidant molecule [R].

Given its similarity with the neurotransmitter glutamate, L-theanine may exert its neuroprotective effects by interfering with its function [R].

Benefits of L-Theanine

There are several L-theanine supplements commercially available, especially to curb anxiety, improve cognitive function, and boost immunity. However, the FDA hasn’t approved them for any conditions due to the lack of solid clinical research. Regulations set manufacturing standards for them but don’t guarantee that they’re safe or effective. Speak with your doctor before supplementing with L-theanine.

Possibly Effective for:

1) Brain Function

In a clinical trial on 30 healthy people, L-theanine improved verbal fluency and executive function. In 18 healthy people prone to anxiety, L-theanine improved attention [R, R].

In a clinical trial on 46 people with minor brain damage, a combination of L-theanine and green tea extract improved memory during a mental exercise. The combination improved recognition memory, attention

The post 8 L-Theanine Benefits + Dosage, Side Effects appeared first on SelfHacked.

What is NSI-189?

NSI-189 is an investigational drug being developed by Neuralstem Inc., a biopharmaceutical company.

NSI-189 was studied in phase I and II clinical trials for the treatment of major depressive disorder. As of July 2017, NSI-189 has failed to meet effectiveness outcomes for depression in phase II trials [R].

According to the developer, NSI-189 is still currently in preclinical trials for a number of other conditions, including [R]:

• Cognitive impairment and radiation-induced cognitive impairments
• Diabetic neuropathy, a form of nerve damage caused by diabetes
• Ischemic stroke
• Angelman Syndrome (a genetic disorder that causes developmental disabilities and nerve-related symptoms)

Mechanism of Action

The mechanism of action of NSI-189 is not completely understood. Initial research suggests that this experimental drug may work by promoting neurogenesis, the growth of new nerve and brain cells. More specifically, NSI-189 appears to primarily affect the hippocampus, the part of the brain responsible for emotion, learning, and memory [R].

In a cell study using human cells derived from the hippocampus, NSI-189 stimulated neurogenesis. A study using mice also suggests that NSI-189 may promote neurogenesis in the hippocampus [R].

Potential Uses of NSI-189

NSI-189 is an experimental drug that has not been approved by the FDA. The safety and effectiveness of this drug are unknown. The following sections detail investigational uses of NSI-189, but there is insufficient evidence to support the use of NSI-189 for any of these conditions.

The below sections are for informational purposes only and in no way promotes the use of this drug.

Clinical Research

Major Depressive Disorder

In a phase I randomized placebo-controlled trial of 24 people, those taking NSI-189 showed significant improvements in depression symptoms compared to placebo after 28 days of treatment [R]

A phase II randomized placebo-controlled trial of 220 people compared the effects of NSI-189 (40 mg/day and 80 mg/day) with placebo after 12 weeks of treatment. This trial failed to meet the researchers expected effectiveness outcome for depression [

The post NSI-189, a New Experimental Nootropic appeared first on SelfHacked.

What Is Sulbutiamine?

Japanese scientists developed sulbutiamine in the 60s while exploring treatments for thiamine deficiency. Some brand names for this compound are Enerion and Arcalion [R].

Sulbutiamine is synthetically produced by binding two thiamine (vitamin B1) molecules together. Sulbutiamine is more fat-soluble than thiamine, allowing it to pass to the brain easier (cross the blood-brain barrier) [R].

Sulbutiamine increases thiamine in the brain more than other forms of thiamine [R, R].

Snapshot

Proponents:

• Reduces fatigue
• May improve cognition
• May protect the brain and nerves
• May stimulate digestion

Skeptics:

• Most uses lack clinical evidence
• Long-term safety is unknown

How Does it Work?

• May Increase thiamine (and thiamine derivative) levels more than thiamine itself [R].

• Increases dopamine (D1) and glutamate activity in decision-making regions of the brain (such as the prefrontal cortex) [R, R].

• Supports mental health (by changing how glutamate acts on dopamine) [R].

• Reduces cell death in the brain (by increasing glutathione) [R, R].

• Increases energy use in the brain (by increasing thiamine triphosphate) [R].

• Supports memory formation (by increasing activity in the hippocampus) [R].

Health Benefits of Sulbutiamine

Possibly Effective:

1) Fatigue

In a study of 1,772 patients with infections and chronic fatigue, sulbutiamine (along with anti-infective treatment) helped with low energy. Fifty-two percent of the patients felt a significant boost in mood and energy [R].

326 patients with chronic fatigue (post-infection) were treated with sulbutiamine or a placebo. Some individuals felt an energy boost from sulbutiamine, but the results were not significant [R].

Sulbutiamine reduced fatigue by 44% in 341 patients with chronic fatigue, but this study lacked a placebo control [R].

In another uncontrolled study of 40 participants, sulbutiamine treatment (400 mg daily for 1 month) greatly improved symptoms of severe depression

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Disclaimer: This post is not a recommendation or endorsement for the use of bromantane. The FDA has not approved this drug for any specific medical or other use, and the available research on it is still in a very early stage, without adequate data to come to any firm conclusions about its general efficacy or safety in human users. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about what science currently says about bromantane’s mechanisms, potential effects, and possible side-effects.

What Is Bromantane?

Bromantane/bromantan (Ladasten) is a drug developed in Russia in the 1980s. Derived from adamantane, bromantane is an actoprotector, which is a kind of drug that enhances physical activity under extreme environmental conditions (such as low oxygen or high temperature) [R, R].

Bromantane purportedly increases energy, reduces anxiety, inhibits fatigue, promotes learning, and improves movement coordination. All of these effects are claimed to combine to help increase both mental and physical performance. In Russia, bromantane is approved for the treatment of neurasthenia [R].

It does not possess any addictive potential and has no serious side effects according to the limited scientific research [R].

However, it is banned from many sports competitions, including the Olympics [R].

Mechanism of Action

Although bromantane’s exact mechanism is unknown, scientists think that it works by increasing brain activity (in the hippocampus, hypothalamus nuclei, and the reticular nuclei of the operculum) [R].

It acts through the dopamine system, by increasing tyrosine hydroxylase and amino acid decarboxylase. This, in turn, increases dopamine formation from tyrosine [R, R, R].

By increasing dopamine, bromantane may increase alertness and wakefulness [R, R].

Bromantane also increases serotonin in the brain, which may help increase feelings of happiness [R].

Genetics

There is no evidence of bromantane’s effects on human genes.

In rats, bromantane administration to rats increased [R]:

• HIF1A, which helps the body adapt to low oxygen

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