If you’re mainly interested in homeopathic belladonna remedies, check out this post.

What Are Belladonna Alkaloids?

Snapshot

Proponents

• May help with menopausal complaints, flu-like symptoms, and migraines

Skeptics

• Toxic at very low doses
• Risk of serious adverse effects
• Interactions with anticholinergic drugs
• Insufficient evidence for several benefits
• Safer and more effective remedies are available for most uses

Anticholinergic Compounds

Belladonna is very poisonous. It contains up to 20 different alkaloids. Its alkaloids are anticholinergics, substances that block the “rest-and-digest” action of acetylcholine in the body. One of the main active compounds is hyoscyamine, which is converted into a mixture called atropine in the body [R, R].

Cholinergic activity in the body is generally beneficial, as opposed to fight-or-flight overdrive. However, blocking cholinergic activity is beneficial for some diseases, especially when it comes to respiratory disorders. Belladonna can be used to relax blocked airways, relieve headaches, irritable bowel syndrome, and menopausal symptoms [R, R, R, R].

The plant uses the main active compounds of Belladonna, its alkaloids, as a defense against animals tempted to eat the plant. The roots contain approximately 0.7 % alkaloids, while the leaves contain slightly less (0.04%). The most abundant ones are [R, R, R]:

• Hyoscyamine
• Atropine (or apoatropine)
• Scopolamine

Some other less concentrated alkaloids in the roots and leaves include:

• Cuscohygrine
• Aposcopolamine

In the seeds, the alkaloid content is approximately 0.06% and the most abundant ones are atropine and scopolamine [R, R].

Ripe Belladonna fruits contain approximately 2 mg alkaloids per berry, with atropine accounting for up to 98% [R].

Consuming 2 – 5 berries or a single leaf can be fatal. Most cases of poisoning occur from eating the berries, either by mistaking them for blueberries or to cause deliberate self-harm. Unintentional poisoning from herbal extracts has also been reported [R].

Mechanism of

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Disclaimer: Levodopa is prescribed, usually in combination with carbidopa, to treat Parkinson’s disease. This post provides a summary of the information on its side effects available in the scientific and clinical literature. Please discuss your medications, dietary supplements, and any potential side effects you are experiencing with your healthcare provider.

L-DOPA & Sinemet Safety Overview

L-DOPA has been the prime treatment for Parkinson’s disease since the 1960s. It increases dopamine levels in the brain, which provides relief of Parkinson’s symptoms [R].

L-DOPA is administered with carbidopa (also known as SINEMET) for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. The combination is classified by the FDA as a drug and is available only with a doctor’s prescription.

L-DOPA supplements have not been approved by the FDA for medical use. Supplements generally lack solid clinical research. Regulations set manufacturing standards for them but don’t guarantee that they’re safe or effective. Speak with your doctor before supplementing.

In this article, we’ll go over:

• Typical and rare side effects of L-DOPA and SINEMET (carbidopa levodopa)
• Mixed effects of L-DOPA reported in the scientific literature
• Potential long-term side effects of L-DOPA and SINEMET (carbidopa levodopa)

Side Effects of L-DOPA, Sinemet & Levodopa-Carbidopa Combinations

Summary

The significant body of research on treatments shows that levodopa is generally safe and well-tolerated. Relevant side effects that have been reported with L-DOPA, Sinemet, and various levodopa-carbidopa combinations include the following:

• Agitation [R]
• Fatigue [R]
• Anxiety [R]
• Hallucinations [R]
• Dizziness [R]
• Confusion [R]
• Nausea [R]
• Vomiting [R]
• Coughing [R]
• Hypotension (low blood pressure) [R]
• Gut bleeding [R]
• Arrhythmias [R]
• Insomnia [R]
• Vivid dreams [R]
• Somnolence (sleepiness, drowsiness) [R]
• Hair loss [R]
• Excessive libido [R]
• Swelling [R]

Rare Side Effects

Life-threatening side effects like Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome (NMS) are rare but possible [R

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Disclaimer: This post is not a recommendation or endorsement for Adderall. This medication is only FDA-approved for the treatment of certain specific medical disorders, and can only be taken by prescription and with oversight from a licensed medical professional. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about the science behind Adderall’s effects, mechanisms, current medical uses, and potential risks.

Adderall Side Effects

Overall Safety

Given that Adderall has met FDA approval for official medical use, the majority of scientific evidence supports the overall safety and effectiveness of Adderall when used as prescribed, and under the supervision of qualified medical professionals.

Nonetheless, like any drug, there is always at least some potential of experiencing adverse side-effects, and so it’s important to be aware of these.

In general — and similar to many commonly-used pharmaceutical drugs — the rate of adverse side-effects tends to increase at progressively higher doses [R].

Serious Side Effects

If you experience any of the following symptoms occur after taking Adderall, contact your doctor immediately [R, R]:

• Seizures (convulsions)
• Changes in vision or blurred vision
• Pupil dilation (mydriasis)
• Allergic reactions: symptoms of this can include itching or hives, swelling of the mouth, face, or hands, difficulty breathing, feeling like you are about to pass out, or tightness in the chest.
• Anxiety
• Fever or sweating
• Muscle problems such as spasms or twitching
• Nausea, vomiting, or diarrhea
• Hallucinations (visual and auditory)
• Chest pain
• Fainting
• Extreme energy
• Confusion
• Agitation
• Unusual mood or behavior
• Signs of heart problems (can be fast, slow, or uneven heartbeats)
• Signs of circulation problems (unexplained bruises, numbness, cold, color changes, or pain in fingers or toes)

Finally, abuse of Adderall by athletes may be especially dangerous, as it can cause dramatically elevated body temperature (hyperthermia), which may, in turn, induce heat stress. The dangers are further increased because the subjectively “stimulating” and “energizing” effects of Adderall abuse can cover-up (“mask”) the symptoms of heat stress — such as sudden exhaustion or fatigue — which, when

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Disclaimer: This post is not a recommendation or endorsement for Adderall or Vyvanse. These medications are only FDA-approved for the treatment of certain specific medical disorders, and can only be taken by prescription and with oversight from a licensed medical professional. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about the science behind these drugs’ effects, mechanisms, and current approved medical uses.

What are Adderall and Vyvanse?

Adderall (dextroamphetamine-amphetamine) and Vyvanse (lisdexamfetamine) both belong to a class of drug called amphetamines.

Amphetamines act on the central nervous system (CNS) to increase levels of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin [R, R].

Adderall and Vyvanse are both stimulants that have been officially FDA-approved for the treatment of ADHD, as well as a few other medical conditions [R, R, R].

Adderall is also FDA-approved to treat the symptoms of narcolepsy and other fatigue-related conditions, such as excessive daytime sleepiness – whereas Vyvanse is also FDA-approved to treat binge eating disorders (BED) [R].

Stimulants such as Adderall and Vyvanse are often the “first-line”, or primary, treatments for ADHD [R, R, R].

American adults who take Adderall for ADHD have increased by 90% from 2002 to 2005. Vyvanse is not as commonly used and was approved for use in children in 2007, in adults in 2008, and in adolescents in 2010 [R, R, R].

However, amphetamine use can lead to addiction and abuse. Stimulants have become the second-most abused drug by college students. This stems from a belief that stimulants like Adderall are “harmless” (they are not) [R, R, R].

Both Adderall and Vyvanse are classified as Schedule II drugs by the FDA, meaning they pose a high risk of abuse that may lead to physical and/or psychological dependence. This also means that they require a prescription in order to be legally bought and used [R].

To learn about the medical uses and mechanisms of Adderall and Vyvanse, check out

The post Adderall vs. Vyvanse: Side Effects, Dangers & Interactions appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: This post is not a recommendation or endorsement for the use of any of the particular compounds or drugs discussed in this post. The FDA has not approved any of these compounds for “cognitive-enhancement” purposes, and the available research on them is still in a very early stage overall. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about what science currently says about these substances’ potential uses and mechanisms.

Drugs Proposed to Improve Memory

INSUFFICIENT EVIDENCE:

Much of the research on the compounds listed below is still in a very early stage, and in most cases, it is not yet possible to come to any firm conclusions about their relative efficacy and safety in human users.

Therefore, the potential effects listed below are still considered to have insufficient evidence, and these findings should be taken with a grain of salt until further research work – including large-scale clinical trials in healthy human users – is performed.

1) Semax

Semax is a drug that has been used in Russia for treating strokes and head injuries, and which has also been claimed to potentially improve learning capacities and memory formation [R].

Semax is not approved by the FDA for use in the United States due to a lack of adequate safety and effectiveness data.

According to some early studies in animals and humans, some of semax’s reported effects include:

• Protecting against low oxygen (hypoxia) by promoting the survival of neurons when the brain is not receiving enough oxygen (in rats) [R]
• Enhancing attention and memory storage [R]
• Influencing the formation of newly-learned information and memories [R]
• Increasing selective attention at the moment of receiving information, as well as strengthening and promoting overall learning abilities [R]
• Improving memory and attention in healthy men under extreme conditions [R]

Some of the potential mechanisms that have been suggested to be behind the effects of Semax include:

• Increasing enkephalins (a natural opiate neurotransmitter), which may be involved in memory formation, consolidation, and reactivation/recall [

The post Racetams & Nootropic Drugs: Does the Limitless Pill Exist? appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: This post is not a recommendation or endorsement for escitalopram. This medication is only approved for the treatment of certain specific medical disorders, and can only be taken by prescription and with oversight from a licensed medical professional. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about the science behind escitalopram’s effects, mechanisms, and current medical uses.

What Is Escitalopram?

Escitalopram is an antidepressant that belongs to the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) class of drugs.

It gained FDA approval in 2002 to treat depression (in adults and adolescents) and general anxiety disorder (in adults). It can also be used “off-label” for other disorders, such as PTSD, OCD, panic disorder, and premenstrual syndrome (PMS), to name just a few [R, R, R, R, R].

For a more in-depth look at the current medical uses of escitalopram, as well as the potential future uses currently being researched, check out this post.

Escitalopram is commonly marketed under the brand names Lexapro, Cipralex, Seroplex, Sipralexa, and Morcet.

Escitalopram vs. Citalopram

Escitalopram is often compared to citalopram, a closely-related SSRI which is actually the “parent” drug of escitalopram.

Citalopram is a mixture (racemic) containing 2 versions of the active drug, while escitalopram only has one. These 2 versions are mirror images of the same drug (“enantiomers”), just like how your right hand is the mirror image of your left hand.

It is believed that escitalopram’s version of the active molecule is better-suited for treating mental disorders – similar to how your right hand only fits properly in a right-handed glove and not in a left-handed glove [R].

In general, most reviews comparing the two have concluded that escitalopram tends to be more effective at treating depression than citalopram [R, R, R, R, R].

Mechanism of Action

Neurons “talk” to each other by sending chemical messengers (neurotransmitters) to one another. One of the most important and well-known neurotransmitters is serotonin, which is believed to play a significant role in mood.

The post Side Effects & Interactions of Escitalopram + Warnings appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: This post is not an endorsement or recommendation for the use of ketamine under any circumstances, except when prescribed and used under supervision by a qualified medical professional. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to educate people about the potential medical uses of ketamine, as well as the science behind its effects and mechanisms.

What is Ketamine?

Ketamine – sometimes also known as Ketalar or Ketaject – is a drug that initiates and maintains anesthesia [R].

The original compound was first discovered in the early 1960s and was approved for use in the United States in 1970. Now it is considered by the World Health Organization (WHO) as one of the safest and most essential drugs in the healthcare system [R].

Ketamine is considered a Schedule III controlled substance by the FDA, which means that it requires a written, oral, or electronic prescription to legally buy or possess the drug [R].

Ketamine is also classified as a “dissociative” drug, which means that it alters the senses, leading to hallucinations and feelings of detachment from the environment and oneself [R].

Unfortunately, these dissociative effects are why some people abuse ketamine for recreational purposes – even in spite of the many risks and dangers that are associated with ketamine abuse. For this reason, ketamine has a significant and well-documented potential for abuse and addiction [R, R].

Dangers of Ketamine

Like any drug, ketamine has a number of potential adverse side-effects that are important to be aware of. To learn about the side effects, drug interactions, and other potential dangers of ketamine, check out this post.

Official Medical Uses of Ketamine

Ketamine has a number of accepted medical uses for treating certain specific medical conditions and situations. Although this means that the evidence for its efficacy in these conditions is relatively solid, always keep in mind that this is a federally-controlled prescription medication that must only be used under the direction and supervision of a qualified medical professional.

Additionally, none of these medical uses should be interpreted as general “benefits” for health! For all of the cases described below, any reported medical benefits only apply to

The post Medical Uses of Ketamine + New Research (incl. Depression) appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: LDN is not FDA-approved for pain or any other indication. It is still a highly experimental approach. The aim of this post is to outline scientific research for informational purposes only. If you are interested in LDN, it is important to talk to your healthcare provider about its possible effectiveness, side effects, and risks.

What is Naltrexone?

The Story of Opioids

Before the concept of low-dose naltrexone was born, high doses of this drug were used in conventional medicine for completely different purposes.

Naltrexone is a drug that blocks the activity of opioids in the brain. Your body normally produces endorphins and enkephalins, natural opioids that contribute to feel-good sensations. In fact, these chemicals are the body’s most powerful reward and pleasure system [R, R].

Opioid drugs can provide relief from chronic, intense pain. But they don’t come without risks: high doses can slow or even stop breathing and exaggerate feelings of calm, euphoria, and pleasure when abused.

Opioid drugs include both prescription painkillers like Vicodin and Percocet, as well as drugs of abuse like fentanyl.

Although we are currently seeing the disastrous effects of the opioid epidemic – from doctors over-prescribing opioid painkillers to extremely potent opioids like fentanyl reaching the streets – the concept of reversing opioid activity dates back to a time before this crisis began [R, R, R].

The opioid blocker naltrexone was synthesized in the 60s and approved in the 80s for treating opioid addiction [R].

Doctors gave naltrexone to opioid addicts in recovery to prevent relapse. The rationale was to completely shut off the ‘high’ of abused narcotics. By blocking all receptors in advance, naltrexone renders narcotics powerless.

The dosage needed to achieve opioid blockage is high, ranging from 50 – 100 mg/day [R, R].

Note: Naltrexone shouldn’t be confused with naloxone (Narcan), although both drugs are opioid blockers. You may have heard about naloxone kits (spray or injection) that can save lives in opioid overdose. Naloxone is a better choice for reversing overdose because it starts to act faster and lasts for a shorter time, as is desirable in emergency situations. Naltrexone, on the other hand, takes a couple of hours just to kick in [R, R].

The Discovery of LDN

Around the same time when naloxone was being used for opioid

The post What is Low Dose Naltrexone (LDN)? + Side Effects appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: This post is not an endorsement or recommendation for the use of GHB – in fact, we strongly advise against the recreational abuse of any illegal drugs, GHB or otherwise. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about the science behind GHB’s side effects, mechanisms, and historical and current uses.

What is GHB?

Overview

Gamma-hydroxybutyrate – more commonly known as “GHB” – was first synthesized in 1960 by the French physician Dr. Henri Laborit [R, R].

Because of its ability to reduce or impair consciousness, it was first used as an anesthetic. However, it was abandoned because of its weak pain-killing (analgesic) effects and its tendency to cause seizures [R, R, R].

The drug later gained popularity as a bodybuilding supplement during the ‘80s and ‘90s due to its reported anabolic (muscle-building) effects. It also became a popular recreational drug as its euphoric effects become more widely known [R, R, R, R, R].

GHB affects a wide variety of biological functions such as sexual behavior and the sleep-wake cycle. The primary effects of GHB can range from mild relaxation to euphoria, but can also include negative effects such as amnesia, hallucinations, and even coma [R, R].

The effects vary from pleasant to dangerous or even life-threatening according to the dose [R, R, R].

This drug also has an extremely high potential for abuse and addiction. In fact, GHB is considered by some to be even more of a public and personal danger than alcohol abuse [R, R, R].

Unfortunately, most users remain unaware of the dangers associated with GHB abuse, and this lack of public awareness has led to misconceptions that GHB is safe [R, R, R, R, R].

As a result, GHB has become a major cause of overdose-related emergency room visits worldwide

The post GHB Side Effects, Street Names, Overdose & Withdrawal appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: By writing this post, we are not recommending this drug. Ligandrol is an unapproved research chemical without a complete safety profile, and we simply don’t know enough about its adverse effects or efficacy. Some of our readers who were already taking the drug requested that we commission a post on it, and we are simply providing information that is available in the clinical and scientific literature.

We do not recommend taking Ligandrol for any reason.

Ligandrol (LGD 4033) Side Effects & Safety

LGD 4033 is a popular and fairly new oral selective androgen receptor modulator (SARM). Some bodybuilders believe that SARMs are safer alternatives to steroids, but there are no data to suggest that unapproved SARMs are safe at all.

After our previous review of the research behind Ligandrol’s potential uses, this post will focus on its side effects and dangers. We’ll go over up-to-date safety research on LGD 4033 and provide a summary of user experiences to give you a clearer picture of what to expect from this compound.

Clinical Trials

Remember: these early studies are not designed to prove whether a compound is safe — they are only designed to weed out very dangerous substances from future testing. Much larger studies with many more participants are required to determine the safety of an experimental drug.

That being said, no serious adverse events were reported in a small study of doses up to 22 mg/day. In the only proper clinical trial on 76 healthy men, low doses (0.1, 0.3, and 1.0 mg/day) were well tolerated over 3 weeks. None of the participants reported significant adverse effects [R].

The most common side effects from the clinical trial were:

• Headaches
• Dry mouth
• Pain related to muscle biopsy
• Upper respiratory tract infections

The frequency of adverse events was similar in the treatment and placebo groups. Side effects were not influenced by the dose — 0.1 mg/day and 1 mg/day caused similar side effects [R].

However, this clinical study suggests that LGD 4033 can cause mild suppression even at 1 mg/day, which is 10 times lower than the typical bodybuilding doses. It suppressed testosterone, sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). Luteinizing hormone (LH) levels were not affected. Hormone levels returned to normal after stopping treatment [R].

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Disclaimer: By writing this post, we are not recommending this drug. Some of our readers requested that we commission a post on it and we are providing a summary of the information available in the scientific and clinical literature, along with a list of evidence-based natural alternatives. Please discuss your medications with your doctor.

What Is Hydrochlorothiazide?

Hydrochlorothiazide is a diuretic mainly used for high blood pressure and water retention. It belongs to the class of thiazide diuretics (or benzothiadiazines). Thiazide diuretics promote the flushing of sodium and water in urine by blocking sodium uptake in the kidneys [R, R, R].

Hydrochlorothiazide has become the most commonly prescribed drug for high blood pressure since it was launched in 1959. In 2008, almost 48 million prescriptions for hydrochlorothiazide alone and over 87 million for its combination with other drugs were written in the US. Of these, 97% were for low-dose (12.5 or 25 mg/day) hydrochlorothiazide [R].

Hydrochlorothiazide is approved by the FDA for treating [R]:

• High blood pressure
• Water retention (edema) due to kidney failure, heart failure, liver damage (cirrhosis), and corticosteroid or estrogen therapy

Although not approved by the FDA, doctors may prescribe hydrochlorothiazide for the following conditions [R]:

• Kidney stones
• Diabetes insipidus
• Osteoporosis
• Ménière’s disease, a disorder of the inner ear
• Acid buildup in the body from kidney dysfunction (renal tubular acidosis)

An important drawback of thiazide diuretics is an increased potassium excretion, which may alter the heart rate and cause serious complications. Their combination with potassium-sparing diuretics (triamterene, amiloride, spironolactone) can prevent this adverse effect [R].

For more about hydrochlorothiazide, how it works, and what it’s prescribed for, check out this post.

Side Effects

Hydrochlorothiazide may cause different side effects. Consult your doctor if these effects are severe or mild but persistent and carefully follow their recommendations.

1) May Cause Potassium Deficits

Potassium deficits are a well-known consequence of diuretics, especially in older people. Mild potassium deficits normally don’t cause symptoms but severe deficiency can cause [R, R]:

• Weakness
• Muscle pain and cramps

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Disclaimer: By writing this post, we are not recommending this drug. Some of our readers who were already taking the drug requested that we commission a post on it, and we are simply providing information that is available in the scientific literature. Please discuss your medications with your doctor.

What Is Ranitidine (Zantac)?

Ranitidine is a drug that decreases stomach acid production and is therefore employed in the treatment and prevention of disorders related to excessive stomach acid [R].

Developed in 1977, ranitidine was first introduced into the market in 1981 and quickly became the best-selling drug worldwide [R].

The main brand names for ranitidine are Zantac® and Taladine®.

Ranitidine is a histamine blocker. By binding to the H2-receptors on the stomach acid-producing cells, it prevents their activation by histamine [R].

Prescription ranitidine comes as tablets (oral and effervescent), capsules, and syrup. This medication is mainly used to treat [R]:

• Ulcers of the stomach and bowel
• Esophagus inflammation
• Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)
• Zollinger-Ellison syndrome

It is also sold over-the-counter (OTC) as 75 mg and 150 mg tablets to prevent symptoms of excessive acid in the stomach such as [R, R]:

• Heartburn
• Acid indigestion

Side Effects

Ranitidine is frequently used worldwide and generally well tolerated.

A review of 21 trials concluded that ranitidine doses of 150 to 600 mg/day are equally safe in elderly and non-elderly patients [R].

Frequency of the main adverse effects of ranitidine in elderly and non-elderly patients [R].

Adverse effects can, however, occur in up to 5% of patients. Those most frequently reported are [R]:

1) Stomach and Bowel

The most frequent events in this system are [R]:

• Nausea and/or vomiting (2.6-6.8%)
• Diarrhea (1.4-4.1%)
• Stomach pain (1.3-1.8%)

These effects tend to improve with continuous treatment. Other, less frequent (up to 2%) side effects include:

• Constipation
• Heartburn
• Dry mouth
• Gas
• Pancreas inflammation

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Disclaimer: This post is not a recommendation or endorsement for the use of psilocybin or any other psychedelic drugs. These drugs are currently illegal to buy or possess, and the FDA has not approved psychedelics for any specific medical or other use. Additionally, the available research on them is still in a very early stage, without adequate data to come to any conclusions about their general efficacy or safety in humans. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about what science currently says about some of the effects of psilocybin, and some of the potential future medical applications that researchers have proposed.

What is Psilocybin?

A Mysterious Psychedelic

Psilocybin (chemically known as 4-phosphoryloxy-N, N-dimethyltryptamine) is a so-called “classic” psychedelic that belongs to the group of hallucinogenic tryptamines. But the story about indigenous use of psilocybin, and the more recent research on this substance over the past century is anything but classic [R].

Over 100 species of hallucinogenic “magic” mushrooms contain psilocybin (including Psilocybe, Conocybe, and Panaeolus). These mushrooms grow in many different parts of the world, and have been used ritually by many different cultures for at least 3,000 years [R, R].

Despite the recent renaissance in psychedelic research, there is a lot of controversy surrounding psilocybin use, its current and future legal status, and its potential therapeutic effects. Not many people know the whole story behind the traditional use of psilocybin-containing mushrooms, nor about the efforts that produced our current state of knowledge about it.

Proposed Future Medical Applications of Psilocybin & Psychedelics

Note: Psilocybin is a Schedule I illegal substance, and has not yet been officially approved by the FDA for any medical purpose or other application. Much more research will need to be conducted before solid conclusions can be made about its effects and safety in healthy human users — and until more data is available, we strongly recommend against taking psilocybin for any reason.

The proposed future applications of psychedelics discussed below are still in a very early stage of research, and a lot more research will be needed before any solid conclusions can be made about the effects of psychedelics in healthy human users.

As

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Disclaimer: This article is not a recommendation or endorsement for any of the drugs or other substances mentioned throughout this post. Many of these medications have only been FDA-approved for the treatment of certain specific medical conditions, and most can only be taken by prescription and with oversight from a licensed medical professional. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about the science behind these drugs’ possible side-effects and other potential risks. None of the information in this post should ever be used to replace conventional medical care or treatment — and always make sure to discuss any new medications or other health-related treatment changes with your doctor first!

Anticholinergics: A Brief Review

“Anticholinergics” refers to a family of drugs and other compounds that block the activity of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. In general, these compounds work by binding to many of the same receptors throughout the body and brain that acetylcholine naturally activates, thereby preventing (“blocking”) its normal effects [R, R].

Some “natural” anticholinergics are found in variety of plants and herbs, whereas others are “synthetic,” meaning that they were scientifically designed to target certain symptoms of various health disorders [R, R].

Anticholinergics are widely used by medical practitioners to treat a variety of health conditions, including asthma, bronchitis, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), Parkinson’s disease, among many others [R, R, R, R, R, R, R].

However, the use of anticholinergics also comes with certain risks — especially if taken in excess, or without the active supervision of a qualified medical professional.

In part one of our SelfHacked series on anticholinergics, we reviewed some of the general mechanisms behind these acetylcholine-targeting drugs, as well as discussed some of their current and potential medical applications. We highly recommend starting with that post, especially if you are new to workings of the acetylcholine system!

In this post, we’ll review

The post Anticholinergics: Potential Side-Effects, Interactions + Other Risks appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: This post is not a recommendation or endorsement for modafinil. This medication is only FDA-approved for the treatment of certain specific medical disorders, and can only be taken by prescription and with oversight from a licensed medical professional. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about the science behind modafinil’s effects, mechanisms, current medical uses, and potential risks.

What is Modafinil?

Modafinil is a wakefulness-promoting stimulant medication that is most commonly used to treat the symptoms of sleep/wakefulness disorders.

For example, modafinil has been FDA-approved for the treatment of chronic fatigue, excessive daytime sleepiness (narcolepsy), obstructive sleep apnea, and shift-work sleep disorder [R].

In the US, modafinil is an FDA-regulated substance, and can be only legally obtained and used by a doctor’s prescription.

Unfortunately, many people also obtain and abuse modafinil illegally, in part due to widespread claims or beliefs that it can enhance cognition, boost mood, increase physical energy (e.g. for athletic training), or alleviate the symptoms of “brain fog” [R].

Although the evidence for these various “enhancement” effects is generally quite weak, illegal abuse of modafinil continues to be increasingly widespread among professionals and students. For example, many reliable survey studies have reported that as much as 20% of university students have illegally abused modafinil or other stimulants (such as Adderall and other amphetamines) in order to “improve their focus” or “enhance their attention” [R, R, R, R].

Modafinil abuse is also widespread among athletes, which has led to it being officially banned for use by professional athletes by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) [R].

When it comes to the legitimate medical use of modafinil, it is generally believed to produce relatively fewer side-effects, and have relatively lower potential for abuse and addiction, compared to other psychostimulant medications — and this is one of the reasons that modafinil has been officially FDA-approved for the treatment of certain medical conditions [R, R].

However, there are still some legitimate reasons to be cautious or skeptical. For one, there is

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Disclaimer: This article is not a recommendation or endorsement for any of the drugs or other compounds mentioned throughout this post. Many of these medications have only been FDA-approved for the treatment of certain specific medical conditions, and most can only be safely and legally taken by prescription and with oversight from a licensed medical professional. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about the science behind these drugs’ effects, biological mechanisms, and potential health applications. None of the information in this post should ever be used to replace conventional medical care or treatment — and always be sure to discuss any new supplements or medications with your doctor first!

What Are Anticholinergics?

The term “anticholinergics” refers to medications, drugs, or other compounds that block the activity of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Generally speaking, these compounds bind to the same structures (known as receptors) as acetylcholine throughout the body, thereby preventing this neurotransmitter from achieving its usual effects [R, R].

Some anticholinergics, such as hyoscamine, are derived from plants and other natural sources. For example, the fruit and leaves of the plant Atropa Belladonna (atropine), sometimes also known as “Deadly Nightshade,” are believed to have anticholinergic effects [R, R].

Other, “synthetic” anticholinergic agents include ipratropium bromide (Atrovent), doxepin, tadalafil, diphenhydramine, among many others. These anticholinergics are sometimes used to help treat respiratory disorders (such as asthma and bronchitis), as well as more complex health conditions, such as depression, insomnia, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), and motion sickness. Some synthetic anticholinergics have also been proposed to potentially help relieve certain symptoms of Parkinson’s disease and overactive bladder [R, R, R, R, R, R, R].

The post Anticholinergics: What They Do, How They Work & Potential Uses appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: This post is not a recommendation or endorsement for Adderall. This medication is only FDA-approved for the treatment of certain specific medical disorders, and can only be taken by prescription and with oversight from a licensed medical professional. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about the science behind Adderall’s effects, mechanisms, current medical uses, and potential risks.

What is Adderall?

Overview

Adderall — otherwise known as dextroamphetamine-amphetamine or just “D-amphetamine” — is one of the most commonly prescribed medications used to treat the symptoms of ADHD and several other health conditions. It belongs to a class of compounds called amphetamines, which act as stimulants in the central nervous system (CNS) through a wide variety of different mechanisms, such as by increasing levels of the major neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin [R, R].

Prescription Patterns

Over 3 million children have been prescribed Adderall or other stimulants to treat psychiatric conditions such as ADHD. Symptoms of ADHD include lack of focus, impulsiveness, and trouble staying still [R, R].

Adults are also commonly prescribed Adderall. The number of American adults who take Adderall for ADHD increased by more than 90% between the years of 2002 and 2005 [R].

Adderall is so widely-used in large part because it is believed to be highly effective and well-tolerated (i.e. it causes relatively few side-effects when used properly) [R].

Potential for Abuse and Addiction

However, Adderall is classified as a Schedule II drug by the FDA, meaning that it has a high potential for abuse and addiction. This also means that it can only be legally purchased and possessed with a doctor’s prescription [R].

Additionally, there are potential downsides to stimulants like Adderall — especially when they are abused (i.e. taken without a prescription, or outside of ongoing medical supervision). In fact, stimulants are the second-most commonly abused drugs by college students, who use Adderall and other stimulants illegally in order to enhance their ability to study for prolonged periods of time [R].

The total extent of Adderall abuse among college students is difficult to know for certain, but it has

The post What Is Adderall? Effects, Official Uses, Dosage appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: The contents of this post are solely informational. Our goal is to outline the information available in the clinical and scientific literature. Please discuss your health concerns and medications with your doctor.

What is Clindamycin?

Overview

Clindamycin is an antibiotic approved for treating certain serious bacterial infections of the skin, muscles, lungs, and female reproductive system [R].

Clindamycin was developed in 1966 and has been commonly prescribed ever since. However, because of recent bacterial resistance and severe colitis associated with clindamycin use, other antibiotics are favorable for less serious infections [R].

Research suggests that clindamycin works by blocking the production of important proteins in bacteria, which stops their growth and spreading [R].

The most common side effect is diarrhea. Clindamycin is linked to a serious form of diarrhea that can lead to colon inflammation (colitis) and require special treatment. Severe colitis may be fatal [R].

The yeast probiotic S. Boulardii is likely effective for helping prevent or reduce diarrhea from antibiotics like clindamycin, according to the available evidence [R, R].

Clindamycin comes in many forms, including capsules, liquid, creams, gels, lotions, vaginal suppositories, and IV injections.

Some common band names are Cleocin, Dalacin, Clindagel, Clindamax, Acanya, and Duac.

Mechanism of Action

Clindamycin and penicillins fight many of the same types of bacteria. Clindamycin is especially effective against bacteria that live and grow in places where there is little oxygen, such as the gut and under the skin. These pathogens are collectively known as anaerobic bacteria [R].

Research suggests that clindamycin works by binding to and blocking protein-making structures inside the bacteria. Lacking essential proteins, the bacteria can’t reproduce or release toxins. Scientists believe that this stops the infection from spreading and allows the immune system to destroy the remaining bacteria [R].

Clindamycin also likely kills parasites through the same mechanism. Although it was considered useful in treating malaria and other parasitic infections, other antimalarials are currently considered more effective [R, R].

One reason is that clindamycin clears parasites very slowly (in about 4 – 6 days). Sometimes, clindamycin is combined with other faster-acting malaria-fighting drugs However, this approach is not mentioned on clindamycin’s list of FDA-approved indications [R

The post Clindamycin (Cleocin) Uses, Side Effects & Dosage appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: The contents of this post are solely informational. Our goal is to outline the information available in the clinical and scientific literature. Please discuss your health concerns and medications with your doctor.

What is IVIg?

Overview

Intravenous immune globulin (IVIg) is a mixture of antibodies that is used to treat a variety of immune system disorders. It is made by gathering blood from thousands of donors to create a concentrated collection of antibodies.

Some people may need IVIg because their body does not make enough antibodies on its own. In this case, IVIg provides new antibodies for the immune system to help fight infections.

Another reason why people may use IVIg is if their immune systems have begun attacking their body’s own cells. The components inside IVIg can stop the immune system from thinking that normal, healthy cells are a threat.

IVIg is used in many conditions including genetic disorders, autoimmune diseases, and infections [R].

The mechanism behind how IVIg works is still not fully understood. Nonetheless, the use of IVIg is growing in many countries despite its very high cost [R+].

The World Health Organization has placed IVIg on its List of Essential Medicines. This list details the most effective and safe medications needed for basic healthcare systems.

How IVIg Is Produced

IVIg is created from the blood of between 1,000 to 15,000 individual donors. Depending on the manufacturer, different amounts of donors are used [R].

All IVIg products contain mostly IgG antibodies. This mirrors the human immune system where IgG is the most common antibody [R].

Some products may also contain trace amounts of IgA and IgM. These types of antibodies are less desirable than IgG because they are less effective. In addition, some people may experience a severe allergic reaction to IgA [R].

Various cells and proteins that are a part of the immune system can also be present in IVIg [R].

Once the use of IVIg became widespread, the World Health Organization published standards on how IVIg should be manufactured. These requirements include [R]:

• Use at least 1,000 individual donors
• Minimize the presence of IgA
• Do not include harmful preservatives
• Do not modify IgG molecules

The post IVIG Infusion Treatment, Side Effects, Dosage, Costs appeared first on SelfHacked.

What is Baclofen?

Baclofen (brand name Lioresal) is a prescription medication used to treat muscle spasms or stiffness, especially in people with multiple sclerosis or spinal cord injuries [R].

Baclofen was first synthesized in the 1960s in the search for an anti-seizure drug. It was not effective for treating seizures, but researchers soon found that baclofen could be used to treat muscle spasticity, a condition that causes muscle spasms and stiffness [R].

Baclofen is used off-label for a number of other conditions, including helping manage alcohol dependence and acid reflux [R].

There are 3 ways baclofen can be administered [R]:

• As a cream, where it is absorbed through the skin
• As oral tablets
• As injections directly into the spinal fluid (intrathecally), using an implanted pump

Is Baclofen a Narcotic?

Narcotics typically refer to opioid drugs, which baclofen is not. Baclofen does, however, fall under the broader category of ‘Central Nervous System Depressants’, drugs that can cause sedation and have a potential for abuse [R, R].

Mechanism of Action

Baclofen has a structure and function similar to the neurotransmitter GABA. Normally, GABA acts to reduce activity in the brain, which is why it’s sometimes known as a “calming” substance [R, R].

Baclofen specifically activates GABA-B receptors, which may play a role in many psychiatric and brain disorders as well as pain [R, R].

All GABA activity in the brain and nerves is “inhibitory”, meaning it blocks the release of other neurotransmitters brain cells use to communicate. By acting on GABA receptors, baclofen blocks the overactivation of nerves that may trigger muscle spasms, pain, brain damage, and mood changes [R, R].

Much more is known about the effects of baclofen on pain and muscle spasms than on mood and addictive behavior [R].

What is Baclofen Used for?

FDA-Approved Uses

1) Muscle Spasticity

Muscle spasticity occurs when the muscles continuously contract, causing spasms, tightness, and stiffness, which can interfere with everyday life. This condition is usually caused by damage to the nervous system [R].

Baclofen is a muscle relaxant that is FDA-approved

The post 6 Baclofen (Lioresal) Uses + Side Effects, Risks & Dosage appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: By writing this post, we are not recommending this drug. Some of our readers who were already taking the drug requested that we commission a post on it, and we are simply providing information that is available in the scientific and clinical literature. Please discuss your medications with your doctor.

What Is Hydrocodone?

Hydrocodone is an opioid invented in 1920 by two German scientists, originally developed to treat severe pain and cough.

Hydrocodone was adapted from codeine – another highly addictive opioid – in the hopes of creating a less-addictive alternative. Today, it is mostly sold in combination products that include additional substances (such as acetaminophen, aspirin, ibuprofen, or antihistamines) in order to further reduce the likelihood of abuse and addiction [R].

Common brand names of drugs that contain hydrocodone include Vicodin, Lorcet, and Lortab [R].

However, a study on the abuse potential of hydrocodone-based combination drugs found that these medications still have a significant potential for addiction. Therefore, one must take care when using any medication that contains hydrocodone [R].

Due to its high addiction potential, hydrocodone is classified as a schedule II narcotic by the FDA, and therefore requires a prescription for use [R].

Mechanism of Action

Hydrocodone is a central nervous system depressant that works mainly by binding to opioid receptors.

Opioid receptors are found in the brain, spinal cord, and gastrointestinal tract. They transmit pain signals to the brain and are also involved in coughing and breathing. The effects of opioids on the nervous system involve several different types of opioid receptors [R]:

• Delta receptors (in the limbic regions)
• Mu receptors (involved in pain signaling)
• Kappa receptors (throughout cortex)
• Sigma receptors

The peak effects of a single hydrocodone dose usually occur 60 to 90 minutes after ingestion. People who abuse hydrocodone often crush and snort the pills to speed up the effects, although this greatly increases the risks of negative effects [R].

The effects of hydrocodone typically last around 4 hours, with some “extended release” pills that can last for up to 12 hours. However, these estimates are based on the average person and vary between individuals [

The post Hydrocodone Vicodin Uses, Side Effects, Withdrawal & Dosage appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: Salvia is illegal in many states in the U.S and is a controlled substance in several countries. We highly advise against the use of salvia until future studies determine its safety and efficacy in medically-supervised and safe settings. The only aim of this post is to outline the research findings.

What is Salvia Divinorum?

Salvia divinorum (also known as Sage of the Diviners, Seer’s Sage, Yerba de la Pastora, Ska Maria, or simply salvia) is a plant species known for its hallucinogenic effects due to psychoactive compounds in its leaves.

Native groups from Mexico have long used this plant in their rituals and as a traditional remedy [R].

Salvia has gained recent popularity as a recreational drug. Street names for this plant include Magic Mint, Purple Sticky, Lady Salvia, and Sally D [R].

Salvia is not considered a controlled substance in the United States, but it has been made illegal in several states. In many other countries, salvia is illegal [R].

History

The salvia plant is native to the sierras of Oaxaca, Mexico. The Mazatec tribe who are native to the region have long used the plant in religious ceremonies and as a medicine for various conditions including headaches, joint pain, and arthritis pain [R, R].

In the 1970s, it was reported that young people from cities in Mexico were traveling to the Sierra Mazateca to purchase Salvia divinorum from the native tribes to make into cigarettes and smoke as a substitute for marijuana [R].

Use in the United States appears to have grown steadily during the 1990s. According to the National Survey on Drug Use and Health, the lifetime prevalence of salvia use increased from 0.7% to 1.3% from 2006 to 2008 [R].

Legal Status

The following section describes the legal status of salvia in different countries. Laws are complex and constantly changing, do not use this information as legal advice. Always verify your own local regulations.

United States

Currently, in the United States, salvia is not a controlled substance on the federal level, although there have been multiple attempts to make salvia and its active compound a Schedule I substance [R].

However, 29 states have made salvia and/or salvinorin A (the active compound in salvia) illegal or

The post What Is Salvia Divinorum? Effects, Safety, and Legality appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: By writing this post, we are not recommending this drug. Some of our readers requested that we commission a post on it, and we are simply providing information that is available in the clinical and scientific literature. Please discuss your medications with your doctor.

If you are interested in the role of the adenosine naturally produced in the body and its brain- and immune-related pathways, we covered these aspects in two other posts: Adenosine, the Good & 4 Ways to Increase It and Adenosine, the Bad & 4 Ways to Lower it.

This post focuses only on the use of adenosine as a drug.

What Is Adenosine (Adenocard)?

Adenocard is one of the brand names adenosine is available under. The drug is produced under various other trade names, including:

• Adenocor
• Adenic
• Adenoco
• Adeno-Jec
• Adenoscan
• Adenosin
• Adrekar
• Krenosin

Adenosine is approved by the FDA and widely used for treating surgical pain, nerve pain, lung hypertension, and certain types of irregular heartbeat (arrhythmias) [R, R, R, R].

It is also used to maintain low blood pressure during medical procedures and to help visualize arteries for diagnosis and aneurysm repair [R, R, R].

Drug Class

Adenosine is classified as a miscellaneous antiarrhythmic drug. Unlike adenosine, other drugs for treating arrhythmias are categorized under classes I to IV of antiarrhythmic agents (Vaughan-Williams classification scheme) [R].

How It Works

Adenosine acts as an activator (agonist) on (purinergic) adenosine receptors throughout the body. Four adenosine receptors have been identified (A1, A2a, A2B, and A3), but as a drug, it mainly activates receptors in the so-called cardiac atrioventricular (AV) nodal tissue and those within the blood vessels to achieve its therapeutic effects [R].

Uses of Adenosine (Adenocard)

Approved Uses

Prescription adenosine is mainly approved for the treatment of irregular heartbeat and for its use as a diagnostic tool. Follow your doctor’s instructions carefully. Take adenosine as recommended and do not change its dose and frequency or stop taking it without your doctor’s approval. Talk to your doctor if your condition doesn’t improve or if it worsens.

1) Irregular Heartbeat (Arrhythmia)

An irregular heartbeat can be triggered by many factors, including mental stress

The post Adenosine (Adenocard): Mechanism of Action, Dose, Side Effects appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: Mescaline is classified as a Schedule I substance. This means that it is an illegal drug with high potential for harm and no known medical uses. We highly advise against the use of mescaline until future studies determine its safety and efficacy in medically-supervised and safe settings. The only aim of this post is to outline research findings.

What is Mescaline?

Definition

Mescaline is a hallucinogenic compound most notably found in the peyote cactus (Lophophora williamsii). It is also found in varying degrees in many other members of the cactus family [R].

It is an alkaloid in the phenethylamine class of compounds, which includes other hallucinogens as well as various stimulants, decongestants, and antidepressants. Research suggests that mescaline alters consciousness similarly to the psychedelics psilocybin (from “magic mushrooms”) and LSD [R, R].

The “Mescaline Cactus”

Mescaline is found in high levels in the peyote cactus and acts as the major active compound. It is concentrated in the small, circular above ground stem tops called “buttons.” Mescaline content in the dried buttons ranges from 2.8% to 3.5% [R, R, R].

Peyote also contains other psychoactive alkaloids that may intensify the effects of mescaline [R].

History and Legal Status

Indigenous Use

According to some researchers, mescaline is one of the oldest known hallucinogens used by humans [R].

One estimate suggests that Native Americans in Mexico used peyote as far back as 5,700 years ago. Allegedly, they considered it to be a divine substance with healing properties [R, R, R].

Indigenous peoples of South America have reportedly used mescaline-containing cacti such as the San Pedro (Echinopsis pachanoi) and Peruvian torch (Echinopsis peruviana) in folk medicine and religious ceremonies for thousands of years [R, R, R].

Scientific Boom

Scientific interest in peyote took off at the end of the 19th century after American newspaper reports of the ritualistic use of peyote by Native American tribes. The search was on to reveal the compound(s) responsible for peyote’s psychedelic

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