What is Astragalus?

Astragalus is a large genus of around 3,000 species belonging to the legume family Fabaceae. This plant is a native to the temperate regions in the Northern hemisphere. Common names include milkvetch (most species), locoweed (some species in North America) and goat’s thorn.

Astragalus root is a staple of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), where it is also known as Huang Qi.

It is also used as a “Qi tonifier” in the oriental system of medicine [R].

Most Astragalus supplements contain Astragalus membranaceus and are marketed as life-prolonging extracts for human use.

The root is the only part of the plant used medicinally and is usually harvested from 4-year old plants. Herbalists call astragalus an “adaptogen”.

Snapshot

Proponents:

• Boosts the Immune system
• Helps combat infections
• Has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects
• Protects the kidneys and heart
• May have anticancer effects

Skeptics:

• Interacts with immunosuppressants
• May not be suitable for autoimmune conditions
• People report headaches and insomnia from higher doses
• Most conditions require intravenous application

Potentially Active Chemical Constituents

Polysaccharides are the most important functional constituents in Astragalus and responsible for the antimicrobial, antiviral and anti-inflammatory capabilities of this herb [R].

It also has several saponins, called Astragalosides (I to X) which are known for their ability to lower cholesterol and boost the immune system [R].

Astragalus also contains flavonoids which show antioxidative qualities and help prevent heart disease and immunodeficiency. Other constituents include amino acids, folic acid, etc and minerals like selenium, zinc, and copper [R].

Traditional Uses

In the Chinese medicinal system, Astragalus is indicated for spleen deficiency symptoms like diarrhea, fatigue, spontaneous sweating and lack of appetite.

Other traditional indications include wasting disorders (a process in which disease causes muscle and fat tissue to “waste” away), night sweats, chronic ulcerations and sores, numbness and paralysis of the limbs and edema [R].

Astragalus is also traditionally used as an antidiarrheal or a laxative and for the treatment of common cold

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Can You Have Too Much Acetylcholine?

Research Interpretation

Due to its wide range of roles throughout the body and brain, high acetylcholine levels, or activity in certain brain areas have been implicated in the development, progression, or symptoms of some health conditions listed in this article.

However, most of the studies we bring up dealt with associations only, which means that a cause-and-effect relationship hasn’t been established.

For example, just because depression has been linked with higher acetylcholine activity in certain brain areas doesn’t mean that depression is caused by too much acetylcholine. Data are lacking to make such claims. 

Also, even if a study did find that too much acetylcholine contributes to depression, acetylcholine levels are highly unlikely to be the only cause. Complex disorders like depression always involve multiple possible factors – including brain chemistry, environment, health status, and genetics – that may vary from one person to another.

Measuring Acetylcholine Levels

Assessing acetylcholine levels in the brain is extremely difficult. This is mostly because acetylcholine levels can’t be directly measured. A direct measurement would require brain tissue, blood from the brain’s circulation, or cerebrospinal fluid.

Even with indirect measurements (using state-of-the-art brain imaging techniques), acetylcholine levels may vary across brain areas and quickly change depending on many factors.

Therefore, whether or not a person can have “too much acetylcholine” is highly uncertain. However, science has suggested a link between certain health conditions and higher acetylcholine levels or activity in specific brain areas.

Is Too Much Acetylcholine Bad?

There are no symptoms associated with high acetylcholine levels per se. Instead, people may only show symptoms of mental health, neurocognitive, or immune disorders. Your doctor will discuss your symptoms with you and run tests to pinpoint the underlying cause.

Low or high acetylcholine levels don’t necessarily indicate a problem if there are no symptoms or if your doctor tells you not to worry about it.

Associated Conditions:

1) Depression

Although serotonin is the neurotransmitter most commonly associated with depression and other mood disorders, other major neurotransmitters — including acetylcholine — may also play important roles in these psychiatric conditions.

Although the exact role of acetylcholine in depression is not yet fully understood, a handful of preliminary animal studies have reported that drugs that block nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) — such as mecamylamine

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Does “Acetylcholine Deficiency” Exist?

Research Limitations

Due to its wide range of roles throughout the body and brain, low acetylcholine levels or activity in certain brain areas have been implicated in the development, progression, or symptoms of a variety of health conditions.

However, most of the studies dealt with associations only, which means that a cause-and-effect relationship hasn’t been established.

For example, just because dementia has been linked with low acetylcholine activity in certain brain areas doesn’t mean that cognitive dysfunction is always caused by “acetylcholine deficiency.” Data are lacking to make such claims. 

Also, even if a study did find that low acetylcholine contributes to cognitive dysfunction, acetylcholine levels are highly unlikely to be the only cause. Complex disorders like dementia always involve multiple possible factors – including brain chemistry, environment, health status, and genetics – that may vary from one person to another.

Associated Conditions:

There are no symptoms associated with “acetylcholine deficiency” or low acetylcholine levels per se.  Instead, people may only show symptoms of mental health or neurocognitive disorders. Your doctor will discuss your symptoms with you and run tests to pinpoint the underlying cause.

Low or high acetylcholine levels don’t necessarily indicate a problem if there are no symptoms or if your doctor tells you not to worry about it.

1) Dementia

Some studies suggest that poor cholinergic activity and low acetylcholine in the brain may cause cognitive decline and poor memory in people with dementia. Drugs used to slow down dementia work precisely by increasing acetylcholine in the brain [R].

2) Alzheimer’s Disease

Acetylcholine has also been proposed to play a potentially significant role in the development or symptoms of certain common neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease [R, R].

In Alzheimer’s disease, the so-called “cholinergic” neurons — the brain cells that primarily use acetylcholine — gradually become damaged and destroyed. Additionally, important molecules called acetylcholine transporters may also become impaired as the disease progresses. These molecules are responsible for transporting acetylcholine into neurons: and impairing them can, therefore, make it more difficult for acetylcholine to fulfill its normal functions throughout the brain. Together, then, these two important acetylcholine-related mechanisms are likely to contribute significantly to some of the hallmark cognitive symptoms of these disorders [

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What is Dopamine?

Definition

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter, a chemical released by neurons (nerve cells) to send signals to other nerve cells (R).

Many areas of the brain produce dopamine. It is produced in the ventral tegmental area (VTA in the image above) of the midbrain, the substantia nigra pars compacta, and the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus (R).

The most important dopamine pathway in the brain controls reward-motivated behavior (R).

Most types of rewards, such as new experiences or accomplishments, can increase dopamine levels in the brain. In addition, most addictive drugs and behavioral addictions can increase dopamine (R).

In addition, dopamine has many other important roles in humans, including movement, memory, attention, learning, sleep, and mood (R).

Dysfunctions of the dopamine system contribute to Parkinson’s disease, schizophrenia, restless legs syndrome, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (R).

Schizophrenia is characterized by high striatum dopamine, but abnormally low prefrontal dopamine activity (R).

Genetics Behind Dopamine

See this post for a more comprehensive guide on the genetics of dopamine.

• Dopamine D1 Receptor gene (DRD1)
• Dopamine D2 Receptor gene (DRD2) (R)
• Dopamine D3 Receptor gene (DRD3)
• Dopamine D4 Receptor gene (DRD4) (R)
• Dopamine D5 Receptor gene (DRD5)
• Tyrosine Hydroxylase (TH)
• Dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DBH)
• Catechol-O-Methyltransferase (COMT)
• D-amino acid oxidase (DAO)

The post What Is Dopamine & Is It Bad In Excess? appeared first on SelfHacked.

What Does High Sed Rate Mean?

Conditions Associated With High Sed Rate

The conditions we discuss here are commonly associated with high sedimentation rate test values, but this lab result is not enough for a diagnosis. Work with your doctor to discover what underlying condition might be causing your high values and to develop an appropriate plan to improve your health.

1) Polymyalgia Rheumatica

Polymyalgia rheumatica is an inflammatory condition that affects people over 50. It causes pain and stiffness in the neck, shoulders, upper arms, and hips, or pain all over the body [R, R].

The ESR test is often used as a diagnostic tool for polymyalgia rheumatica, as high ESR levels show inflammation [R, R].

In multiple studies on almost 900 people with polymyalgia rheumatica, most people had ESR above 30 mm/h. Only 6% to 22% of them had ESR lower than 30 mm/h [R, R, R, R, R, R].

High ESR (> 30-40mm/h) may show polymyalgia rheumatica. Yet, normal ESR rates cannot exclude the condition and more tests should be done [R, R, R, R].

2) Giant Cell/Temporal Arteritis

Temporal arteritis or giant cell arteritis is when there is inflammation of the blood vessels. It affects people over 50 and is more common among women. It can cause headaches, pain in the joints, fever, eye pain, blindness, and even stroke. It is often related to polymyalgia rheumatica [R, R, R, R, R].

One of the diagnostic criteria of temporal arteritis is when ESR is equal or higher than 50 mm/hr [R, R, R, R, R].

In multiple studies on almost 400 people with temporal arteritis, most people had ESR above 40 mm/h [R, R, R, R, R, R].

High ESR (> 40-50mm/h) can show temporal arteritis, but ESR < 40mm/h cannot exclude the condition. Other tests, like C-reactive protein, are more sensitive in

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Disclaimer: This article is not a recommendation or endorsement for any of the substances mentioned throughout this post. Many substances mentioned below are purely investigational, and have not yet been proven or officially approved for effectiveness in increasing motivation in healthy human users. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about the science behind these compounds’ effects, biological mechanisms, and potential health applications. None of the information in this post should ever be used to replace conventional medical care or treatment — and always be sure to discuss any new supplements with your doctor first!

Natural Approaches to Boosting Motivation

Before we discuss some potential motivation-related lifestyle and other factors, it is important to keep in mind that the FDA has not approved any substance or therapy for the purpose of increasing motivation.

None of the information in this post should ever be used to replace conventional medical care. If you think you might be experiencing motivation-related issues, it is important to talk to your doctor first to look into getting an official diagnosis, and to discuss potential treatment options. Also always be sure to discuss any new lifestyle or dietary changes with your doctor first, in order to avoid negative interactions and other potential risks.

With that said, recent research has uncovered some interesting connections between lifestyle, supplements, and motivation. Future research will be needed to determine how safe and effective these strategies might be.

INSUFFICIENT EVIDENCE:

1) Natural Sunlight

Regular exposure to natural sunlight has been associated with many diverse benefits, both physical (biological) and psychological.

Among these benefits, some evidence suggests that sunlight exposure may have several potential effects related to dopamine, the reward system, and motivation in general.

For example, sun exposure has been associated with:

• Increased availability of dopamine receptors (such as D2 and D3 receptors), which may help boost motivation by increasing the brain’s overall level and activity of dopamine [R]
• Triggering the production of the neurotransmitter serotonin, which may boost overall mood and motivation [R]
• Increased levels of endorphins, natural opioids that help relieve stress and improve mood [R]
• Better regulation of the circadian rhythm

The post 7 Lifestyle Changes & Natural Ways to Increase Motivation appeared first on SelfHacked.

What is Motivation?

Definition

“Motivation” refers to an internal drive to engage in a specific behavior, typically in pursuit of a reward (or “reinforcer”) such as food, money, or social stimulation.

Dopamine and Motivation

Many different factors are involved in regulating motivation throughout the brain. However, one of the single most important factors is the levels and overall activity of dopamine, a major neurotransmitter that has been consistently linked to motivational processes over many decades of neuroscientific research [R].

It is currently widely believed that the release of dopamine in certain key areas of the brain (such as the basal ganglia) is what causes the positive feeling of reward when tasks are completed, or when personal goals are achieved. In this sense, dopamine activity is what “incentivizes” or “drives” motivated behavior in general [R].

For example, stimulating dopamine neurons in animals consistently increases the speed and strength of the behaviors that they associate with getting a reward (such as pressing a lever to obtain food), indicating increased motivation to pursue or obtain that reward. Conversely, inhibiting the release of dopamine (such as by injecting drugs that “block” dopamine neurons — also known as “dopamine antagonists”) suppresses motivated reward-seeking behaviors [R].

Dopamine has also been linked to reinforcement learning, the process by which animals and people learn which behaviors lead to rewards [R].

Therefore, if you’re looking to improve motivation, understanding the brain’s dopamine system and how it works is the best place to start!

Theories of Motivation 

The “Cost-Benefit Analysis” Theory of Motivation

According to several decades of neuroscientific research, many scientists believe that the amount of motivation an animal or a person feels for a given task or activity is determined by a sort of “cost-benefit analysis” that the brain calculates.

Generally speaking, this means that the brain adds up the “value” of a potential reward, and subtracts the “cost” of the behaviors or activity that are required to get it. The resulting “subjective reward value” is encoded by dopamine, with larger reward values causing relatively more dopamine to be released. The size of this dopamine response, in turn, determines how much motivation is felt towards a given task or reward [R].

Some of

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What is Ashwagandha?

Like most supplements, ashwagandha is not approved by the FDA for any purpose. The evidence presented here is considered preliminary and insufficient to justify medical use [R].

To avoid unexpected interactions or other adverse events, talk to your doctor before incorporating ashwagandha into your daily regimen.

“Horse Smell”

Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) is a member of the Solanaceae or nightshade family of plants. It goes under several other names, such as Indian ginseng, poison gooseberry, or Indian winter cherry [R].

The name Ashwagandha can be traced back to ancient Sanskrit. It translates to “smell of a horse” (ashwa “horse” and gandha “smell”) since the scent of its roots is similar to that of horse urine. Others say its name indicates it will make you “strong like a horse,” and there may be truth to this claim [R, R].

Ashwagandha is a powerful adaptogenic herb. Adaptogens increase the body’s resistance to stress, offsetting detrimental effects and helping to balance bodily functions and the immune response [R].

Traditional Uses

In the Indian traditional medicine system of Ayurveda, ashwagandha is seen as a broad-spectrum remedy. It’s classified as a Rasayana or rejuvenator. These are some of the traditional uses [R, R, R]:

• The roots are used as a tonic, aphrodisiac, diuretic, antiparasitic, astringent, and stimulant
• The leaves are recommended for fever and painful swelling
• The seeds are antiparasitic while the flowers are used as an astringent, diuretic, and aphrodisiac and have detoxifying effects
• The berries and tender leaves are applied externally to tumors, ulcers, and wounds
• Other useful parts are the stem, fruit, and bark

Ashwagandha root is also used to restore health in women after giving birth and to thicken and increase the nutrition of breast milk. Despite its centuries-long use in India, Ashwagandha has only recently gained scientific recognition in the West [R, R].

Active Components

Ashwagandha contains a range of active components, including a unique family of compounds called withanolides, as well as alkaloids, saponins, terpenoids, flavonoids, tannins, phenols, and resins [R, R].

Withanolides

Among Ashwagandha’s components, the most biologically active are the

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Disclaimer: This post is not a recommendation or endorsement for Adderall. This medication is only FDA-approved for the treatment of certain specific medical disorders, and can only be taken by prescription and with oversight from a licensed medical professional. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about the science behind Adderall’s effects, mechanisms, current medical uses, and potential risks.

Adderall Side Effects

Overall Safety

Given that Adderall has met FDA approval for official medical use, the majority of scientific evidence supports the overall safety and effectiveness of Adderall when used as prescribed, and under the supervision of qualified medical professionals.

Nonetheless, like any drug, there is always at least some potential of experiencing adverse side-effects, and so it’s important to be aware of these.

In general — and similar to many commonly-used pharmaceutical drugs — the rate of adverse side-effects tends to increase at progressively higher doses [R].

Serious Side Effects

If you experience any of the following symptoms occur after taking Adderall, contact your doctor immediately [R, R]:

• Seizures (convulsions)
• Changes in vision or blurred vision
• Pupil dilation (mydriasis)
• Allergic reactions: symptoms of this can include itching or hives, swelling of the mouth, face, or hands, difficulty breathing, feeling like you are about to pass out, or tightness in the chest.
• Anxiety
• Fever or sweating
• Muscle problems such as spasms or twitching
• Nausea, vomiting, or diarrhea
• Hallucinations (visual and auditory)
• Chest pain
• Fainting
• Extreme energy
• Confusion
• Agitation
• Unusual mood or behavior
• Signs of heart problems (can be fast, slow, or uneven heartbeats)
• Signs of circulation problems (unexplained bruises, numbness, cold, color changes, or pain in fingers or toes)

Finally, abuse of Adderall by athletes may be especially dangerous, as it can cause dramatically elevated body temperature (hyperthermia), which may, in turn, induce heat stress. The dangers are further increased because the subjectively “stimulating” and “energizing” effects of Adderall abuse can cover-up (“mask”) the symptoms of heat stress — such as sudden exhaustion or fatigue — which, when

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Conventional Bladder Infection Treatment

Antibiotics

Antibiotics are the mainstay treatment for bladder infections. Simple cases usually require a short course of antibiotics.

For a long time, the first choice was the combination drug trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, more commonly known by its brand names Bactrim or Septra.

According to multiple studies, Bactrim is on par with other strong antibiotics. It also has fewer side effects. In clinical trials, the cure rate of Bactrim was about 80-100% [R, R, R, R].

The main drawback of Bactrim is that bacterial resistance is steadily increasing. One study found that its cure rate dropped to 42% when treating resistant strains of bacteria. Many clinicians now recommend only using Bactrim in specific cases (when the local resistance rate is less than 20%) [R, R, R].

Another commonly used antibiotic is nitrofurantoin, also called Macrobid or Macrodantin. Studies show that nitrofurantoin has a similar cure rate to Bactrim, averaging about 90%. The benefit of nitrofurantoin is that bacterial resistance is still low [R, R, R].

On the downside, it may have negative effects on the kidneys. Nitrofurantoin must be used cautiously in those with kidney disease and in the elderly [R].

Other antibiotics may be used for severe infections or highly-resistant bacteria. Stronger antibiotics come with more side effects and can be more expensive. Other factors that affect antibiotic choices include drug availability, allergies, and drug interactions [R, R]

Pain Medications

Pain-relief medications are sometimes used to reduce symptoms of pain and burning when urinating. However, painkillers only temporarily ease the discomfort and do not treat the underlying infection.

A popular pain-relief medication is phenazopyridine, which is available over-the-counter. Common brand names include Azo, Uristat, and Pyridium. This drug is able to concentrate in the urine to provide localized pain relief [R].

Phenazopyridine has been used in bladder infections for nearly a century, but research on its use is limited. One large study found that it improved symptoms in 61% of about 1500 women [R].

Other painkillers, like NSAIDs and opioids, are sometimes used. According to research, opioids improve

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What is tDCS?

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a non-invasive technique for stimulating the brain. It involves using a low-intensity direct electrical current to modulate brain activity in certain regions of the cortex. The cortex is the outermost layer of the brain that plays key roles in many diverse cognitive functions related to memory, attention, abstract thinking, language, and more.

The practice of using electricity to stimulate the brain dates back further than you might think, although its inception took on a cruder form than the current protocols used in research today. The first evidence of transcranial stimulation comes from the Roman Empire, when Scribonius Largus, a Roman physician, described how placing live torpedo fish (a type of ray capable of emitting electricity) onto a patient’s head could (supposedly) relieve headaches [R].

The first person to use direct current stimulation in a clinical setting was Giovanni Aldini, who in the early 19th century supposedly used this technique to cure a patient of major depressive disorder – at least, according to accounts by Aldini himself [R].

tDCS later became popular with German psychiatrists in the late 19th century for the treatment of psychotic patients – but due to a lack of consistency among procedures, unclear descriptions of the treatment, and a misunderstanding of certain aspects of tDCS, results from these studies were either inconclusive or highly inconsistent. This led to the abandonment of tDCS in the 1930s until it made a brief reappearance in the 1960s before being abandoned once again – this time likely due to the emergence of new psychiatric drugs, which (it was believed) made tDCS unnecessary.

Finally, it wasn’t until the late 20th century that tDCS emerged once again, with a considerable number of new clinical studies being conducted over the past two decades or so.

How Does tDCS Work?

tDCS involves placing one electrode on the head or scalp over the brain area to be stimulated, and another electrode on the head or neck of the opposite side – and then running a current through them in order to either increase or decrease the activity of the underlying brain region.

The post What is tDCS & Are DIY Devices Safe? appeared first on SelfHacked.

Mitochondrial Dysfunction & Associated Diseases

Recap: Why Mitochondria Are So Important

Properly functioning mitochondria are central to health, as they are the main energy provider of the cell. However, reactive oxidative species produced by mitochondria accumulate over time, and oxidative stress leads to age-related diseases. Due to the vast role of mitochondria in the cell, mitochondrial dysfunction is linked to hundreds of diseases [R, R, R].

Additionally, a number of metabolic disorders are associated with genetic mutations in either mitochondrial or nuclear DNA. These mutations may be inherited or occur randomly [R].

Note that while mitochondrial dysfunction has been observed in or linked to these conditions, it is not necessarily the cause (or even a cause). As such, strategies intended to improve mitochondrial function may or may not help manage these diseases. When in doubt, your doctor can help you understand the role of the mitochondria in your health.

1) Cancer Research

Cancer cells require mitochondria to power the growth of tumors. Cancer cells tend to have an increased number of mitochondria to provide this energy. The mitochondrial increase is mediated independently by different transcription factors or proteins that initiate the production of specific genes [R].

On the other hand, cancer cells increase the turnover of mitochondria that have accumulated free radicals. Oxidative stress is increased in cancer cells, which damages the surrounding tissue [R].

One of the hallmarks of cancer is the ability of the cell to avoid programmed cell death (apoptosis). Normally, the mitochondria of healthy cells would trigger this process if the cell was replicating too much or too quickly. However, in cancer cells, programmed cell death is avoided by increasing the destruction of mitochondria that have accumulated free radicals. They also turn on antioxidant pathways so that oxidative stress does not trigger cell death [R, R].

Mitochondria of cancer cells have lower levels of proteins that promote cell death (BAX/BAK) and/or higher levels of proteins that prevent cell death (BCL-2/BCL-XL) [R, R].

The network of mitochondria in cancer cells is also different. Cancer cells have more fragmented mitochondria (by increasing mitochondrial division and decreasing fusion) [R].

Cancer cells also produce

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Symptoms of H. Pylori Infection

Symptoms shown here are commonly associated with H. Pylori infection. Work with your doctor or other health care professional for an accurate diagnosis.

Typical Symptoms

The majority of patients infected with H. pylori (around 80%) do not develop symptoms (R). However, in almost all infected people, the infection causes progressive damage to the lining of the stomach (R).

When the patient cannot clear the infection, it may lead to increased stomach acid production and stomach tissue damage and life-long chronic inflammation. The following symptoms have been reported (R, R):

• Heartburn
• Belching and bloating
• Burping
• Diarrhea or constipation
• Pain around the upper- or mid-abdomen

Long-Term Complications

Approximately 20% of those with an H. pylori infection will experience an H. pylori-related disease. These diseases include gastritis and gastric or duodenal ulcers in 15 – 20% of patients (R).

Other issues that may be caused or exacerbated by infection include (R, R):

• Iron-deficiency anemia
• Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (easy bruising)
• Vitamin B12 deficiency

These issues are likely due to a decreased ability to metabolize certain vitamins in the stomach during infection.

H. pylori has also been implicated as a risk factor in non-gastrointestinal disorders, like atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries), ischemic heart disease (reduced blood supply to the heart) and stroke (R). More information is needed to determine the significance and cause of these associations (R).

Infection in Children

H. pylori infection is acquired primarily in early childhood and is predominantly transmitted within families. Infected mothers and siblings are the most common familial source of H. pylori (R).

Most of the infected children do not develop any complications (R). Childhood H. pylori infection causes less stomach inflammation and ulceration than in adults (R). However, some children can develop symptoms such as a burning sensation in the stomach, nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite (R).

In adults,

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What is Neurofeedback?

“Biofeedback training” is a growing trend in healthcare, where people are hooked up to devices for measuring different aspects of bodily functions in order to see how these processes are taking place in real-time. People can then be trained to learn to control the way these processes are carried out [R, R].

“Neurofeedback” is a specific form of biofeedback training, which is based on the idea that people can consciously alter the way their brains function by using training programs to help them to visualize and learn to change the patterns of electrical activity taking place in their brain [R].

Purported Benefits of Neurofeedback Therapy

While a considerable amount of early research has been done on neurofeedback, it is still a relatively new technology, and not much is known about the exact mechanisms underlying each different form of neurofeedback training.

There is also another major limitation that is worth noting about much of the existing research: because neurofeedback requires a person to be hooked up to complex devices and extensively trained, it is often difficult, impractical, or even impossible to have proper “control” groups to compare the effects to. This means that it’s possible that many of the reported findings so far are simply due to the “placebo” effect [R].

Therefore, due both to a general lack of adequate research so far, as well as methodological limitations when it comes to ruling out possible “placebo” effects, all of the purported uses described below are currently considered to have “insufficient evidence” to come to any firm conclusions about the efficacy of neurofeedback training. None of the uses below have been FDA-approved, and much more research will be needed before any of the proposed uses below could become officially approved and accepted as valid medical approaches to treating the various conditions and other biological functions discussed below.

With that in mind, let’s review what some of the preliminary research so far has to say about the potential effects of neurofeedback training!

Insufficient Evidence For

1) Cognitive Function

Some researchers have proposed that neurofeedback may help to enhance neuroplasticity (the capacity of the brain to change and adapt). This, in turn, could possibly help to slow or reverse the natural declines in cognitive

The post 24 Potential Uses of Neurofeedback Therapy (incl. ADHD) appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: This post is not a recommendation or endorsement for Adderall or Vyvanse. These medications are only FDA-approved for the treatment of certain specific medical disorders, and can only be taken by prescription and with oversight from a licensed medical professional. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about the science behind these drugs’ effects, mechanisms, and current approved medical uses.

What are Adderall and Vyvanse?

Adderall (dextroamphetamine-amphetamine) and Vyvanse (lisdexamfetamine) both belong to a class of drug called amphetamines.

Amphetamines act on the central nervous system (CNS) to increase levels of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin [R, R].

Adderall and Vyvanse are both stimulants that have been officially FDA-approved for the treatment of ADHD, as well as a few other medical conditions [R, R, R].

Adderall is also FDA-approved to treat the symptoms of narcolepsy and other fatigue-related conditions, such as excessive daytime sleepiness – whereas Vyvanse is also FDA-approved to treat binge eating disorders (BED) [R].

Stimulants such as Adderall and Vyvanse are often the “first-line”, or primary, treatments for ADHD [R, R, R].

American adults who take Adderall for ADHD have increased by 90% from 2002 to 2005. Vyvanse is not as commonly used and was approved for use in children in 2007, in adults in 2008, and in adolescents in 2010 [R, R, R].

However, amphetamine use can lead to addiction and abuse. Stimulants have become the second-most abused drug by college students. This stems from a belief that stimulants like Adderall are “harmless” (they are not) [R, R, R].

Both Adderall and Vyvanse are classified as Schedule II drugs by the FDA, meaning they pose a high risk of abuse that may lead to physical and/or psychological dependence. This also means that they require a prescription in order to be legally bought and used [R].

To learn about the medical uses and mechanisms of Adderall and Vyvanse, check out

The post Adderall vs. Vyvanse: Side Effects, Dangers & Interactions appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: This post is not a recommendation or endorsement for the use of any of the particular compounds or drugs discussed in this post. The FDA has not approved any of these compounds for “cognitive-enhancement” purposes, and the available research on them is still in a very early stage overall. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about what science currently says about these substances’ potential uses and mechanisms.

Drugs Proposed to Improve Memory

INSUFFICIENT EVIDENCE:

Much of the research on the compounds listed below is still in a very early stage, and in most cases, it is not yet possible to come to any firm conclusions about their relative efficacy and safety in human users.

Therefore, the potential effects listed below are still considered to have insufficient evidence, and these findings should be taken with a grain of salt until further research work – including large-scale clinical trials in healthy human users – is performed.

1) Semax

Semax is a drug that has been used in Russia for treating strokes and head injuries, and which has also been claimed to potentially improve learning capacities and memory formation [R].

Semax is not approved by the FDA for use in the United States due to a lack of adequate safety and effectiveness data.

According to some early studies in animals and humans, some of semax’s reported effects include:

• Protecting against low oxygen (hypoxia) by promoting the survival of neurons when the brain is not receiving enough oxygen (in rats) [R]
• Enhancing attention and memory storage [R]
• Influencing the formation of newly-learned information and memories [R]
• Increasing selective attention at the moment of receiving information, as well as strengthening and promoting overall learning abilities [R]
• Improving memory and attention in healthy men under extreme conditions [R]

Some of the potential mechanisms that have been suggested to be behind the effects of Semax include:

• Increasing enkephalins (a natural opiate neurotransmitter), which may be involved in memory formation, consolidation, and reactivation/recall [

The post Racetams & Nootropic Drugs: Does the Limitless Pill Exist? appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: This post is not a recommendation or endorsement for escitalopram. This medication is only approved for the treatment of certain specific medical disorders, and can only be taken by prescription and with oversight from a licensed medical professional. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about the science behind escitalopram’s effects, mechanisms, and current medical uses.

What Is Escitalopram?

Escitalopram is an antidepressant that belongs to the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) class of drugs.

It gained FDA approval in 2002 to treat depression (in adults and adolescents) and general anxiety disorder (in adults). It can also be used “off-label” for other disorders, such as PTSD, OCD, panic disorder, and premenstrual syndrome (PMS), to name just a few [R, R, R, R, R].

For a more in-depth look at the current medical uses of escitalopram, as well as the potential future uses currently being researched, check out this post.

Escitalopram is commonly marketed under the brand names Lexapro, Cipralex, Seroplex, Sipralexa, and Morcet.

Escitalopram vs. Citalopram

Escitalopram is often compared to citalopram, a closely-related SSRI which is actually the “parent” drug of escitalopram.

Citalopram is a mixture (racemic) containing 2 versions of the active drug, while escitalopram only has one. These 2 versions are mirror images of the same drug (“enantiomers”), just like how your right hand is the mirror image of your left hand.

It is believed that escitalopram’s version of the active molecule is better-suited for treating mental disorders – similar to how your right hand only fits properly in a right-handed glove and not in a left-handed glove [R].

In general, most reviews comparing the two have concluded that escitalopram tends to be more effective at treating depression than citalopram [R, R, R, R, R].

Mechanism of Action

Neurons “talk” to each other by sending chemical messengers (neurotransmitters) to one another. One of the most important and well-known neurotransmitters is serotonin, which is believed to play a significant role in mood.

The post Side Effects & Interactions of Escitalopram + Warnings appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: This post is not an endorsement or recommendation for the use of ketamine under any circumstances, except when prescribed and used under supervision by a qualified medical professional. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to educate people about the potential medical uses of ketamine, as well as the science behind its effects and mechanisms.

What is Ketamine?

Ketamine – sometimes also known as Ketalar or Ketaject – is a drug that initiates and maintains anesthesia [R].

The original compound was first discovered in the early 1960s and was approved for use in the United States in 1970. Now it is considered by the World Health Organization (WHO) as one of the safest and most essential drugs in the healthcare system [R].

Ketamine is considered a Schedule III controlled substance by the FDA, which means that it requires a written, oral, or electronic prescription to legally buy or possess the drug [R].

Ketamine is also classified as a “dissociative” drug, which means that it alters the senses, leading to hallucinations and feelings of detachment from the environment and oneself [R].

Unfortunately, these dissociative effects are why some people abuse ketamine for recreational purposes – even in spite of the many risks and dangers that are associated with ketamine abuse. For this reason, ketamine has a significant and well-documented potential for abuse and addiction [R, R].

Dangers of Ketamine

Like any drug, ketamine has a number of potential adverse side-effects that are important to be aware of. To learn about the side effects, drug interactions, and other potential dangers of ketamine, check out this post.

Official Medical Uses of Ketamine

Ketamine has a number of accepted medical uses for treating certain specific medical conditions and situations. Although this means that the evidence for its efficacy in these conditions is relatively solid, always keep in mind that this is a federally-controlled prescription medication that must only be used under the direction and supervision of a qualified medical professional.

Additionally, none of these medical uses should be interpreted as general “benefits” for health! For all of the cases described below, any reported medical benefits only apply to

The post Medical Uses of Ketamine + New Research (incl. Depression) appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: By writing this post, we are not recommending this drug. Ligandrol is an unapproved research chemical without a complete safety profile, and we simply don’t know enough about its adverse effects or efficacy. Some of our readers who were already taking the drug requested that we commission a post on it, and we are simply providing information that is available in the clinical and scientific literature.

We do not recommend taking Ligandrol for any reason.

Ligandrol (LGD 4033) Side Effects & Safety

LGD 4033 is a popular and fairly new oral selective androgen receptor modulator (SARM). Some bodybuilders believe that SARMs are safer alternatives to steroids, but there are no data to suggest that unapproved SARMs are safe at all.

After our previous review of the research behind Ligandrol’s potential uses, this post will focus on its side effects and dangers. We’ll go over up-to-date safety research on LGD 4033 and provide a summary of user experiences to give you a clearer picture of what to expect from this compound.

Clinical Trials

Remember: these early studies are not designed to prove whether a compound is safe — they are only designed to weed out very dangerous substances from future testing. Much larger studies with many more participants are required to determine the safety of an experimental drug.

That being said, no serious adverse events were reported in a small study of doses up to 22 mg/day. In the only proper clinical trial on 76 healthy men, low doses (0.1, 0.3, and 1.0 mg/day) were well tolerated over 3 weeks. None of the participants reported significant adverse effects [R].

The most common side effects from the clinical trial were:

• Headaches
• Dry mouth
• Pain related to muscle biopsy
• Upper respiratory tract infections

The frequency of adverse events was similar in the treatment and placebo groups. Side effects were not influenced by the dose — 0.1 mg/day and 1 mg/day caused similar side effects [R].

However, this clinical study suggests that LGD 4033 can cause mild suppression even at 1 mg/day, which is 10 times lower than the typical bodybuilding doses. It suppressed testosterone, sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). Luteinizing hormone (LH) levels were not affected. Hormone levels returned to normal after stopping treatment [R].

The post Ligandrol (LGD 4033) Side Effects & Dangers appeared first on SelfHacked.

What Is the Myelin Sheath?

Definition & Facts

The myelin sheath is a cover made out of fats and proteins that wraps around the axons (projection) of nerve cells. It insulates neurons so they can send electrical signals faster and more efficiently. This supports brain health and nervous system function [R, R].

Here are some quick facts about myelin:

• About 80% fats/cholesterol and 20% proteins.
• Considered an outgrowth or extension of a type of glial cell (oligodendrocyte – CNS, Schwann cell – PNS).
• Continues to grow throughout adolescence and even into our early 20s.
• Myelinated axons are white in appearance, hence the term “white matter” of the brain.

Function

Myelin improves the conduction of action potentials, which are needed to send information down the axon to other neurons [R].

The myelin sheath increases the speed of impulses in neurons. It facilitates conduction in nerves while saving space and energy [R].

Myelin helps prevent the electrical current from leaving the axon. It allows for larger body sizes by maintaining efficient communication at long distances.

When babies are born, many of their nerves lack mature myelin sheaths. As a result, their movements are jerky, uncoordinated, and awkward. Scientists think that, as myelin sheaths develop, movements become smoother, more purposeful, and more coordinated [R, R].

Research suggests that myelination might improve children’s cognitive performance improves as they grow and develop [R].

Additionally, when a peripheral fiber is severed, the myelin sheath provides a track along which regrowth can occur [R].

When Does Myelination Stop?

Researchers think that myelination occurs most significantly during childhood, but some brain imaging studies suggest it may continue until 55 years of age and possibly even throughout life [R].

Oligodendrocytes vs. Schwann Cells

Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells are types of cells that produce, maintain, and repair myelin [R].

Schwann cells normally produce myelin in peripheral nerves (outside the brain), but can enter the brain when needed [R].

On the other hand, oligodendrocytes are found solely in the brain. They are responsible for the formation of new myelin in both the injured and healthy adult brains [R].

Symptoms and Conditions Linked With Myelin Loss or Damage

The post Myelin Sheath Definition, Function & Demyelinating Diseases appeared first on SelfHacked.

What is Eleuthero?

Definition

Also known as Siberian ginseng, eleuthero is an herb with the scientific names Eleutherococcus senticosus or Acanthopanax senticosus. Around the world, it may also be called Ciwujia, Shigoka, Goka, Ezoukogi, or Kan Jang (when combined with green chiretta). It is a staple of traditional medicine in the Far East, especially in China, Korea, and eastern Russia [R, R, R, R, R, R].

According to these traditions, eleuthero is an adaptogen: a substance that keeps the body functioning normally under stress [R].

Eleuthero belongs to the same plant family as Asian and American ginseng (Araliaceae). However, Asian and American ginseng both belong to a different genus further up the botanical tree called Panax, while eleuthero belongs to Eleutherococcus. Being a distant cousin of these other ginsengs, eleuthero contains a different set of bioactive compounds [R].

Eleuthero is a flowering shrub. Its root, bark, leaves, and berries all contain bioactive compounds that may have positive health effects [R, R].

Components

The roots, berries, and leaves of eleuthero each contain multiple bioactive compounds. The specific compounds in each part of the plant may be different, and so their health benefits may also vary. Most studies on the health benefits of eleuthero focus on the root and bark [R].

Eleuthero berries contain high levels of antioxidants and potential cancer-fighting compounds; they are also high in important minerals like potassium, calcium, and magnesium. These berries have long been added to fermented wines in China and Russia [R].

Eleutherosides

The most important bioactive compounds in eleuthero belong to a chemical family called eleutherosides; these are eleutherosides A through E. Of these, the ones with the greatest effect are eleutherosides B (syringin) and E [R].

These two compounds are being investigated for anticancer and anti-diabetic effects [R].

Sesamin

Sesamin is an active compound that was first discovered in sesame seeds. Sesamin from eleuthero may help protect nerve and brain cells from damage. Sesamin may also improve liver function and reduce

The post Eleuthero (Siberian Ginseng) Root Dosage & Side Effects appeared first on SelfHacked.

What is TENS?

Figure 1 Source: http://www.therxreview.com/tens-unit-what-it-is-and-what-it-does/

TENS is short for transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation. It is generally considered a safe (when used correctly), inexpensive, and non-invasive method of stimulating nerves by applying electricity to the surface of the skin.

Because it can be used to stimulate almost any nerve in the body, TENS has a very diverse range of uses. One of the most common uses of TENS is to reduce chronic pain throughout the body. Other people use it to help with psychological disorders, improve lung function, and potentially enhance athletic performance.

Because it is a relatively recent technology, new uses for TENS are constantly being developed and discovered.

However, not all studies find that TENS is effective, and the results can be quite inconsistent across different studies. One possible reason for this is that TENS treatment may be very susceptible to the placebo effect.

Unfortunately, many of the early studies on TENS were not placebo-controlled, which can make it difficult to draw firm conclusions.

Therefore, we encourage healthy skepticism when looking at any particular health claim about TENS.

FDA Regulation

TENS units have not been approved by the FDA for any medical purpose or health claim. Talk to your doctor before using TENS.

TENS devices are classified as Class II devices. They can be approved as “adjunct in the treatment of pain” as long as they are similar enough — that is, at last as safe and effective — to already cleared TENS devices on the market.

How It Works

It’s not actually known for certain how TENS might work, although a few prominent theories claim to explain at least some of its effects.

The most common explanation of how TENS works for pain relief involves the “gate control” theory of pain. The basic idea is that stimulating large areas of the skin may shut off or suppress the nervous system in the upper part of the spinal cord. Closing this “gate” may prevent pain signals from passing to the brain from the rest of the body [R].

Reduced pain may cause the body to release natural (“endogenous”) opioids or the body’s “natural painkillers” — according to another explanation [R].

Repeated use of a

The post What is a TENS Unit? + How to Use & How Does it Work appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: This article is not a recommendation or endorsement for any of the drugs or other substances mentioned throughout this post. Many of these medications have only been FDA-approved for the treatment of certain specific medical conditions, and most can only be taken by prescription and with oversight from a licensed medical professional. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about the science behind these drugs’ possible side-effects and other potential risks. None of the information in this post should ever be used to replace conventional medical care or treatment — and always make sure to discuss any new medications or other health-related treatment changes with your doctor first!

Anticholinergics: A Brief Review

“Anticholinergics” refers to a family of drugs and other compounds that block the activity of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. In general, these compounds work by binding to many of the same receptors throughout the body and brain that acetylcholine naturally activates, thereby preventing (“blocking”) its normal effects [R, R].

Some “natural” anticholinergics are found in variety of plants and herbs, whereas others are “synthetic,” meaning that they were scientifically designed to target certain symptoms of various health disorders [R, R].

Anticholinergics are widely used by medical practitioners to treat a variety of health conditions, including asthma, bronchitis, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), Parkinson’s disease, among many others [R, R, R, R, R, R, R].

However, the use of anticholinergics also comes with certain risks — especially if taken in excess, or without the active supervision of a qualified medical professional.

In part one of our SelfHacked series on anticholinergics, we reviewed some of the general mechanisms behind these acetylcholine-targeting drugs, as well as discussed some of their current and potential medical applications. We highly recommend starting with that post, especially if you are new to workings of the acetylcholine system!

In this post, we’ll review

The post Anticholinergics: Potential Side-Effects, Interactions + Other Risks appeared first on SelfHacked.

Disclaimer: This post is not a recommendation or endorsement for modafinil. This medication is only FDA-approved for the treatment of certain specific medical disorders, and can only be taken by prescription and with oversight from a licensed medical professional. We have written this post for informational purposes only, and our goal is solely to inform people about the science behind modafinil’s effects, mechanisms, current medical uses, and potential risks.

What is Modafinil?

Modafinil is a wakefulness-promoting stimulant medication that is most commonly used to treat the symptoms of sleep/wakefulness disorders.

For example, modafinil has been FDA-approved for the treatment of chronic fatigue, excessive daytime sleepiness (narcolepsy), obstructive sleep apnea, and shift-work sleep disorder [R].

In the US, modafinil is an FDA-regulated substance, and can be only legally obtained and used by a doctor’s prescription.

Unfortunately, many people also obtain and abuse modafinil illegally, in part due to widespread claims or beliefs that it can enhance cognition, boost mood, increase physical energy (e.g. for athletic training), or alleviate the symptoms of “brain fog” [R].

Although the evidence for these various “enhancement” effects is generally quite weak, illegal abuse of modafinil continues to be increasingly widespread among professionals and students. For example, many reliable survey studies have reported that as much as 20% of university students have illegally abused modafinil or other stimulants (such as Adderall and other amphetamines) in order to “improve their focus” or “enhance their attention” [R, R, R, R].

Modafinil abuse is also widespread among athletes, which has led to it being officially banned for use by professional athletes by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) [R].

When it comes to the legitimate medical use of modafinil, it is generally believed to produce relatively fewer side-effects, and have relatively lower potential for abuse and addiction, compared to other psychostimulant medications — and this is one of the reasons that modafinil has been officially FDA-approved for the treatment of certain medical conditions [R, R].

However, there are still some legitimate reasons to be cautious or skeptical. For one, there is

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